Plants

17 pages, 3914 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic and Functional Characterization of Acetolactate Synthase (ALS) Genes in Stress Adaptation of the Noxious Weed Amaranthus palmeri

by Jiao Ren, Mengyuan Song, Daniel Bimpong, Fulian Wang, Wang Chen, Dongfang Ma and Linfeng Du

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3088; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193088 - 7 Oct 2025

Abstract

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) is an important enzyme in plant branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis and the target of several major herbicide classes. Despite its agronomic importance, the role of ALS genes in stress adaptation in the invasive weed Amaranthus palmeri remains unstudied. In this [...] Read more.

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) is an important enzyme in plant branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis and the target of several major herbicide classes. Despite its agronomic importance, the role of ALS genes in stress adaptation in the invasive weed Amaranthus palmeri remains unstudied. In this study, four ApALS genes with high motif conservation were identified and analyzed in A. palmeri. Phylogenetic analysis classified ApALS and other plant ALS proteins into two distinct clades, and the ApALS proteins were predicted to localize to the chloroplast. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that ApALS genes are responsive to multiple stresses, including salt, heat, osmotic stress, glufosinate ammonium, and the ALS-inhibiting herbicide imazethapyr, suggesting roles in both early and late stress responses. Herbicide response analysis using an Arabidopsis thaliana ALS mutant (AT3G48560) revealed enhanced imazethapyr resistance, associated with higher chlorophyll retention. Furthermore, high sequence homology between AT3G48560 and ApALS1 suggests a conserved role in protecting photosynthetic function during herbicide stress. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the ALS gene family in A. palmeri and offers important insights into its contribution to stress resilience. These findings establish a vital foundation for developing novel strategies to control this pervasive agricultural weed and present potential genetic targets for engineering herbicide tolerance in crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular, Biochemical and Developmental Adaptations of Plants Under Abiotic Stress)

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17 pages, 538 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Nitrogen Fertilizer Rates on Spring Maize Yield and Soil Nitrogen Balance Under Straw Returning Conditions of Cold Regions

by Jinghong Ji, Shuangquan Liu, Xiaoyu Hao, Yu Zheng, Yue Zhao, Yuqi Xia, Zhanqiang Xing and Wei Guo

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3087; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193087 - 7 Oct 2025

Abstract

Under the condition of straw returning to the field, appropriate nitrogen fertilizer application is one of the key factors used to improve crop yield and ensure environmental safety. Therefore, an experiment with different rates of nitrogen fertilization was conducted with a randomized block [...] Read more.

Under the condition of straw returning to the field, appropriate nitrogen fertilizer application is one of the key factors used to improve crop yield and ensure environmental safety. Therefore, an experiment with different rates of nitrogen fertilization was conducted with a randomized block design in Harbin, China. The straw was deeply plowed back into the field after harvest in the autumn. The nitrogen application rates were 0, 75, 150, 180, 225, and 300 kg·ha⁻¹. The purpose of this study is to clarify the appropriate amount of nitrogen fertilizer under the condition of straw returning to the field and to provide technical support for high-yield and high-efficiency maize in cold regions. The results indicated that the yield of maize first increased and then stabilized as the amount of nitrogen fertilizer increased, while the economic benefits first increased and then decreased. When the nitrogen application rate exceeds 225 kg·ha⁻¹ or is lower than 150 kg·ha⁻¹, the economic benefits significantly decrease. When high-nitrogen fertilizer rates of 225 kg·ha⁻¹ and 300 kg·ha⁻¹ were applied, the residual nitrate nitrogen in the soil was increased by 2.1 times and 2.3 times, respectively, compared to before sowing. With the increase in the nitrogen application rate, the nitrogen fertilizer utilization efficiency and agronomic efficiency decreased, and the apparent nitrogen loss and nitrogen surplus significantly increased. Comprehensively considering the maize yield, benefits, and environmental risk factors the suitable nitrogen application rate was in a range of 170.2 kg·ha⁻¹ to 178.2 kg·ha⁻¹ in the first year and 150.0 kg·ha⁻¹ to 171.3 kg·ha⁻¹ in the second year. This work provides a theoretical basis and technical support for the rational application of nitrogen fertilizer and high-yield and high-efficiency spring maize under the condition of straw returning to the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Management of Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition for Improved Crop Production)

12 pages, 1708 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cucumber Green Mottle Mosaic Virus Decreases Chlorophyll a Content in Cucurbit Crops by Upregulating the Key Gene in Chlorophyll Catabolic Pathway, Chlorophyllase 1

by Zhenggang Li, Yafei Tang, Guobing Lan, Lin Yu, Shanwen Ding, Zifu He and Xiaoman She

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3086; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193086 - 6 Oct 2025

Abstract

Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV, Tobamovirus viridimaculae) is a tobamovirus that induces leaf green mottling, mosaic patterns, bleaching, fruit sponginess, rotting, and malformation symptoms in various cucurbit crops. The underlying mechanisms by which CGMMV elicits these symptoms have yet to be [...] Read more.

Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV, Tobamovirus viridimaculae) is a tobamovirus that induces leaf green mottling, mosaic patterns, bleaching, fruit sponginess, rotting, and malformation symptoms in various cucurbit crops. The underlying mechanisms by which CGMMV elicits these symptoms have yet to be elucidated. In the present study, we observed that the infection of CGMMV in bottle gourd, but not in N. benthamiana, led to the significant upregulation of a key gene involved in chlorophyll degradation, Chlorophyllase 1 (CLH1). This induction may be closely linked to chlorophyll degradation, particularly that of chlorophyll a (Clh a) in bottle gourd plants. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the amino acid sequence of BgCLH1 has a closer relationship with those of CLH1 from other cucurbit crops and has a relatively farther relationship with those of the well-studied CLH1 from Arabidopsis thaliana and Citrus sinensis. Further, confocal microscopy analysis indicated that BgCLH1 may be localized to the cytoplasm instead of the chloroplast. Moreover, silencing of the BgCLH1 gene not only reduced viral accumulation but also resulted in an increase in chlorophyll content. Similar results were also observed in watermelon, suggesting that this regulatory mechanism may be conserved across cucurbit crops. Our findings thus reveal a complex and intricate interplay between viral infection and the chlorophyll metabolic pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Viruses, Viroids and Phytoplasmas: Insight into Evolutionary, Pathogenicity, and Epidemiology Studies—2nd Edition)

22 pages, 1916 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lightweight GAN for Restoring Blurred Images to Enhance Citrus Detection

by Yuyu Huang, Hui Li, Yuheng Yang, Chengsong Li, Lihong Wang and Pei Wang

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3085; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193085 - 6 Oct 2025

Abstract

Image blur is a major factor that degrades object detection in agricultural applications, particularly in orchards where crop occlusion, leaf movement, and camera shake frequently reduce image quality. This study proposed a lightweight generative adversarial network, AGG-DeblurGAN, to address non-uniform motion blur in [...] Read more.

Image blur is a major factor that degrades object detection in agricultural applications, particularly in orchards where crop occlusion, leaf movement, and camera shake frequently reduce image quality. This study proposed a lightweight generative adversarial network, AGG-DeblurGAN, to address non-uniform motion blur in citrus tree images. The model integrates the GhostNet backbone, attention-enhanced Ghost modules, and a Gated Half Instance Normalization Module. A blur detection mechanism enabled dynamic routing, reducing computation on sharp images. Experiments on a citrus dataset showed that AGG-DeblurGAN maintained restoration quality while improving efficiency. For object detection, restored citrus images achieved an 86.4% improvement in mAP@0.5:0.95, a 76.9% gain in recall, and a 40.1% increase in F1 score compared to blurred images, while the false negative rate dropped by 63.9%. These results indicate that AGG-DeblurGAN can serve as a reference for improving image preprocessing and detection performance in agricultural vision systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Artificial Intelligence and Sensor Systems in Agriculture)

19 pages, 8799 KB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Suitable Habitat Range Shift Dynamics of the Rare Orchid Cymbidium cyperifolium in China Under Global Warming

by Yaqi Huang, Xiangdong Liu, Ting Chen, Chan Chen, Yibo Luo, Lu Xu and Fuxiang Cao

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3084; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193084 - 6 Oct 2025

Abstract

Wild orchids, valued for their beauty and economic importance, are facing the challenges of distribution contraction and range shifts from climate change. The rare Cymbidium cyperifolium (class II in the List of National Key Protected Wild Plants in China, Vulnerable on the China [...] Read more.

Wild orchids, valued for their beauty and economic importance, are facing the challenges of distribution contraction and range shifts from climate change. The rare Cymbidium cyperifolium (class II in the List of National Key Protected Wild Plants in China, Vulnerable on the China Biodiversity Red List) remains understudied regarding its responses to climate variability. Utilizing an enhanced MaxEnt model, we predicted suitable habitats under diverse climate scenarios, revealing a potential distribution of 52.37 × 10⁴ km², concentrated in eastern Yunnan, western Guangxi, the Guizhou border, and southern Hainan. Cymbidium cyperifolium is sensitive to climate change, and temperature annual range (Bio 7) contributes a significant 77.42% of the distribution probability (i.e., habitat suitability), highlighting temperature’s pivotal influence on its distribution. Although the overall potential distribution area and low-suitability regions in China are predicted to decrease, medium and high-suitability areas are expected to expand. The center of mass of the high-altitude habitat is concentrated in southeastern Yunnan Province, migrating just slightly, yet tending westward and northeastward. Based on these findings, we recommend the expansion of existing protected areas or the establishment of new ones for C. cyperifolium, particularly in eastern Yunnan and western Guangxi. Additionally, our research can serve as a reference for the ex situ conservation of C. cyperifolium and other orchids with similar ecological habits, underscoring the broader implications in biodiversity preservation efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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17 pages, 4159 KB

Open AccessArticle

Production of Bioactive Compounds in Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume Using Bioreactor Cultures Under Elicitation with Sodium Chloride

by Jittraporn Chusrisom, Gadewara Matmarurat, Nattanan Panjaworayan T-Thienprasert, Wannarat Phonphoem and Pattama Tongkok

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3083; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193083 - 6 Oct 2025

Abstract

Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume is an endangered wild orchid with medicinal properties. In this research, we propagated G. speciosum from vegetative organs grown under aseptic conditions. Subsequently, salinity stress was applied at the plantlet stage to investigate its effect on the accumulation of bioactive [...] Read more.

Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume is an endangered wild orchid with medicinal properties. In this research, we propagated G. speciosum from vegetative organs grown under aseptic conditions. Subsequently, salinity stress was applied at the plantlet stage to investigate its effect on the accumulation of bioactive compounds. Half-strength Murashige and Skoog (½ MS) medium supplemented with a combination of 1 mg of L⁻¹ 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and 0.5 mg of L⁻¹ 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) proved to be a more suitable medium for shoot formation (32.33 ± 2.52 shoots per explant). The protocorm-like bodies, derived from embryogenic callus, were transferred into a temporary immersion bioreactor (TIB) system; 10-min of immersion every 3 h enhanced the maximum number of shoots, shoot height, and the fresh growth index (127.00 ± 2.16, 5.00 ± 0.51 cm and 4.26 ± 0.52, respectively). The proliferated plantlets from the TIB system successfully rooted in Vacin and Went medium. Furthermore, the plantlets were maintained in ½ MS medium supplemented with sodium chloride (NaCl) (0, 50, 100 or 200 µM) under a white light-emitting diode for 72 h to determine the total phenolic content (TPC) in the in vitro cultures. The TPC was highest in the medium with 100 µM of NaCl (111.06 ± 2.24 mg gallic acid equivalent g⁻¹ dry weight), the diphenyl picrylhydrazyl antioxidant activity was 24.50 ± 0.76% and ferric-reducing antioxidant power values were in the range 2441.79 ± 1.21 to 2491.96 ± 3.23 µM ascorbic acid equivalent g⁻¹ dry weight. The G. speciosum extracts showed antibacterial activity against acne pathogens, with minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration values in the ranges 6.4–12.8 mg mL⁻¹ and 12.8–25.6 mg mL⁻¹, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Plant Physiology and Pharmacognosy in the Production of Bioactive Compounds)

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21 pages, 1409 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Biochar Combined with Nitrogen Fertilizer Application on Pepper Yield, Quality and Rhizosphere Soil Microbial Community Diversity

by Chunyan Wu, Qiyuan Sun and Wei Wang

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3082; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193082 - 6 Oct 2025

Abstract

In agricultural systems, excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer often leads to low nitrogen use efficiency and environmental pollution. In order to solve this problem, we studied the synergistic effect of biochar and nitrogen fertilizer on pepper yield, quality and rhizosphere soil health. This [...] Read more.

In agricultural systems, excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer often leads to low nitrogen use efficiency and environmental pollution. In order to solve this problem, we studied the synergistic effect of biochar and nitrogen fertilizer on pepper yield, quality and rhizosphere soil health. This study was conducted under a temperate continental monsoon climate in Changchun, China. Using ‘Jinfu 803’ pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) as the test material, biochar was prepared from corn straw under oxygen-limited conditions at 500 °C. the comprehensive effects of the combined application of biochar (0, 0.7% soil mass ratio) and nitrogen fertilizer (0, 75, 375, 675 kg/hm² pure nitrogen) on pepper yield, fruit quality, rhizosphere soil physicochemical properties, and microbial community structure were studied. Redundancy analysis (RDA), high-throughput sequencing, and multivariate statistical methods were used to analyze the association patterns between soil environmental factors and microbial functional groups. The results showed that the combined application of biochar and nitrogen fertilizer significantly improved soil porosity (increased by 12.3–28.6%) and nutrient content, increased yield, and improved quality, among which the treatment of 0.7% biochar combined with 375 kg/hm² nitrogen fertilizer (B1N2) had the best effect. Under this treatment, the pepper yield reached 24,854.1 kg/hm², which was 42.35% higher than that of the control (B0N0). Notably, the nitrogen partial factor productivity (PFPN) of the B1N2 treatment (66.3 kg/kg) was significantly higher than that of the corresponding treatment without biochar and was not significantly lower than that of the high-nitrogen B1N3 treatment. The contents of soluble sugar and vitamin C in fruits increased by 51.18% and 39.16%, respectively. Redundancy analysis (RDA) revealed that the bacterial community structure was primarily shaped by soil pH, organic matter, and porosity, while the fungal community was predominantly influenced by alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen and total nitrogen. Furthermore, the B1N2 treatment specifically enriched key functional microbial taxa, such as Chloroflexi (involved in carbon cycling) and Mortierellomycota (phosphate-solubilizing), which showed significant positive correlations with improved soil properties. In conclusion, B1N2 is the optimal treatment combination as it improves soil physical conditions, increases nutrient content, optimizes microbial community structure, and enhances pepper yield and quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

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24 pages, 669 KB

Open AccessReview

Nutrient-Element-Mediated Alleviation of Cadmium Stress in Plants: Mechanistic Insights and Practical Implications

by Xichao Sun, Liwen Zhang, Yingchen Gu, Peng Wang, Haiwei Liu, Liwen Qiang and Qingqing Huang

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3081; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193081 - 6 Oct 2025

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd), a pervasive and highly phytotoxic metal pollutant, poses severe threats to agricultural productivity, ecosystem stability, and human health through its entry into the food chain. Plants have evolved intricate defense mechanisms, among which the strategic manipulation of nutrient elements emerges as [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd), a pervasive and highly phytotoxic metal pollutant, poses severe threats to agricultural productivity, ecosystem stability, and human health through its entry into the food chain. Plants have evolved intricate defense mechanisms, among which the strategic manipulation of nutrient elements emerges as a critical physiological and biochemical strategy for mitigating Cd stress. This comprehensive review delves deeply into the multifaceted roles of essential macronutrient elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur), essential micronutrient elements (zinc, iron, manganese, copper) and non-essential beneficial elements (silicon, selenium) in modulating plant responses to Cd toxicity. We meticulously dissect the physiological, biochemical, and molecular underpinnings of how these nutrients influence Cd bioavailability in the rhizosphere, Cd uptake and translocation pathways, sequestration and compartmentalization within plant tissues, and the activation of antioxidant defense systems. Nutrient elements exert their influence through diverse mechanisms: competing with Cd for root uptake transporters, promoting the synthesis of complexes that reduce Cd mobility, stabilizing cell walls and plasma membranes to restrict apoplastic flow and symplastic influx, modulating redox homeostasis by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities and non-enzymatic antioxidant pools, regulating signal transduction pathways, and influencing gene expression profiles related to metal transport, chelation, and detoxification. The complex interactions between nutrients themselves further shape the plant’s capacity to withstand Cd stress. Recent advances elucidating nutrient-mediated epigenetic regulation, microRNA involvement, and the role of nutrient-sensing signaling hubs in Cd responses are critically evaluated. Furthermore, we synthesize the practical implications of nutrient management strategies, including optimized fertilization regimes, selection of nutrient-efficient genotypes, and utilization of nutrient-enriched amendments, for enhancing phytoremediation efficiency and developing low-Cd-accumulating crops, thereby contributing to safer food production and environmental restoration in Cd-contaminated soils. The intricate interplay between plant nutritional status and Cd stress resilience underscores the necessity for a holistic, nutrient-centric approach in managing Cd toxicity in agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Ecotoxicology and Remediation Under Heavy Metal Stress)

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33 pages, 1972 KB

Open AccessReview

Turning Susceptibility into Strength: A New Era of Durable Resistance in Plants Through Genome Editing

by Shallu Thakur, Simranjot Kaur, Sudeep Adhikari, Prerna Sabharwal, Yuqing Fu and Geoffrey Meru

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3080; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193080 - 5 Oct 2025

Abstract

In plants, resistance genes (R) are key players in combatting diseases caused by various phytopathogens. Typically, resistance relies on detecting a single pathogen-derived molecular pattern. However, R-gene-mediated resistance is often race specific, follows the gene-for-gene hypothesis, and can be overcome [...] Read more.

In plants, resistance genes (R) are key players in combatting diseases caused by various phytopathogens. Typically, resistance relies on detecting a single pathogen-derived molecular pattern. However, R-gene-mediated resistance is often race specific, follows the gene-for-gene hypothesis, and can be overcome in field conditions as pathogens evolve. On the contrary, altering plant susceptibility genes (S-genes) facilitates compatibility and results in broad and durable resistance. S-genes are negative regulators present in plants and exploited by pathogens to facilitate their growth and cause infection. Several studies across crop species have reported manipulation of S-genes using genome editing to confer broad spectrum resistance. This review focuses on the plant defense mechanism against biotic stress, R-genes vs. S-genes, different types/classes of S-genes, different tools for S-gene discovery, and the use of gene editing technologies to target S-genes in addition to their applications, challenges, and future perspectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genome Editing Application on Plant Growth and Development Improvement)

23 pages, 4754 KB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological Acclimation of Durum Wheat Spikes in Response to Foliar Micronutrient Applications

by Despina Dimitriadi, Georgios P. Stylianidis, Ioannis Tsirogiannis, Lampros D. Bouranis, Styliani N. Chorianopoulou and Dimitris L. Bouranis

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3079; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193079 - 5 Oct 2025

Abstract

A cultivation of durum wheat that established in a field with soil poor in micronutrients received foliar applications at the initiation of the dough stage towards biofortifying the spikes with micronutrients. The morphology of the spike is crucial in determining grain yield, and [...] Read more.

A cultivation of durum wheat that established in a field with soil poor in micronutrients received foliar applications at the initiation of the dough stage towards biofortifying the spikes with micronutrients. The morphology of the spike is crucial in determining grain yield, and the spikelets, the components of the inflorescence, influence each other. The number and arrangement of these spike components affect spike length, spike weight, spike chaff (the non-grain biomass in the spike), grain number per spike, grain weight per spike, and spikelet number per spike, and all contribute to final grain yield per spike. The spike’s developmental program responded to the interventions regarding the morphological traits; this response was analyzed for each spike component, and an acclimation program seemed to be activated by each intervention. Cysteine or methionine has been added as a potential enhancer of the biofortification process, and the application mixtures were coupled with selected surfactants, an organosilicon ethoxylate or an alcohol ethoxylate one, while products with targeted composition for biofortification with micronutrients have also been studied. Their effect on the developmental acclimation program of the treated spike is presented and discussed. The action of this program provided grains of similar weight, regardless of the intervention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plants 2025—from Seeds to Food Security)

14 pages, 1594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Cottonseed Oil and Fatty Acids Through Introgression Breeding in Upland Cotton

by Savyata Kandel, Francisco Omar Holguin, Claudia Galvan, Yi Zhu, Jane Dever, Carol Kelly, Derek Whitelock and Jinfa Zhang

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3078; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193078 - 5 Oct 2025

Abstract

Upland cotton is an important fiber and oilseed crop. Cottonseed produces approximately 15% of farm gate value in cotton production. Therefore, improvement of cottonseed oil can significantly increase the economic return of cotton production with the same land use and investment. However, genetic [...] Read more.

Upland cotton is an important fiber and oilseed crop. Cottonseed produces approximately 15% of farm gate value in cotton production. Therefore, improvement of cottonseed oil can significantly increase the economic return of cotton production with the same land use and investment. However, genetic variation in cottonseed oil is highly limited within upland cotton, limiting the genetic gain in cottonseed oil. Introgression breeding can alleviate this bottleneck effect by introducing desirable genes from Pima to Upland cotton. The objective of this study was to evaluate introgression lines (ILs) for better cottonseed oil. A population of 590 ILs, developed from a cross between Acala 1517-99 and Pima, was grown in Las Cruces, NM in 2022 which was used for the fatty acid methyl ester analysis through gas chromatography. There was a high level of variation in cottonseed oil and fatty acids. In the biplot, cottonseed oil was positively correlated with oleic acid and negatively related with palmitic acid. The cluster analysis identified a group of ILs with the highest average oil and oleic acid. As a result, ILs with better oil profiles were identified for further testing and analysis toward the development of high-quality cotton varieties with higher and better oil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Diversity and Molecular Marker Development for Cotton Breeding and Crop Improvement)

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15 pages, 2109 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lead Immobilization in Soil and Uptake Reduction in Brassica chinensis Using Sepiolite-Supported Manganese Ferrite

by Fengzhuo Geng, Yaping Lyu, Liansheng Ma, Yin Zhou, Jiayue Shi, Roland Bol, Peng Zhang, Iseult Lynch and Xiuli Dang

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3077; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193077 - 5 Oct 2025

Abstract

Lead (Pb) in soil poses serious environmental and health risks, and its removal requires complex and costly treatment methods to meet strict regulatory standards. To effectively address this challenge, innovative and efficient techniques are essential. Sepiolite-supported MnFe₂O₄ (MnFe₂O [...] Read more.

Lead (Pb) in soil poses serious environmental and health risks, and its removal requires complex and costly treatment methods to meet strict regulatory standards. To effectively address this challenge, innovative and efficient techniques are essential. Sepiolite-supported MnFe₂O₄ (MnFe₂O₄/SEP) composites were synthesized via a chemical co-precipitation method. The effects of MnFe₂O₄/SEP on soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), available Pb content, Pb²⁺ uptake, and the activities of antioxidant enzymes in Brassica chinensis (Pak Choi) were examined. MnFe₂O₄/SEP showed superior Pb²⁺ adsorption compared to SEP alone, fitting Langmuir models, Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) models, Temkin models and pseudo-second-order kinetics. The maximum adsorption capacities at 298, 308, and 318 K were 459, 500 and 549 mg·g⁻¹, respectively. XPS analysis indicated that chemisorption achieved through ion exchange between Pb²⁺ and H⁺ was the main mechanism. MnFe₂O₄/SEP increased the soil pH by 0.2–1.5 units and CEC by 18–47%, while reducing available Pb by 12–83%. After treatment with MnFe₂O₄/SEP, acid-extractable and reducible Pb in the soil decreased by 14% and 39%, while oxidizable and residual Pb increased by 26% and 21%, respectively. In Brassica chinensis, MnFe₂O₄/SEP reduced Pb²⁺ uptake by 76%, increased chlorophyll content by 36%, and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels by 36%. The activities of antioxidant enzymes—superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT)—were decreased by 29%, 38% and 17%, respectively. These findings demonstrate that MnFe₂O₄/SEP is an efficient Pb²⁺ adsorbent that immobilizes Pb in soil mainly through ion exchange, thereby providing a highly effective strategy for remediating Pb-contaminated soils and improving plant health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Botanical Effects of Nanomaterials and Their Applications in Agriculture)

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24 pages, 2871 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Plant Species Recognition Mediated by Root Exudates: A Review

by Fumin Meng, Renyan Duan, Hui Yang, Qian Dai, Yu Zhang and Jiaman Fu

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3076; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193076 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Root exudates are critical signaling molecules in belowground plant–plant interactions, regulating physiological and ecological responses in adjacent plants through kinship recognition and self-/non-self-discrimination systems. This review systematically synthesizes the compositional diversity of root exudates, with particular emphasis on elucidating the ecological foundations of [...] Read more.

Root exudates are critical signaling molecules in belowground plant–plant interactions, regulating physiological and ecological responses in adjacent plants through kinship recognition and self-/non-self-discrimination systems. This review systematically synthesizes the compositional diversity of root exudates, with particular emphasis on elucidating the ecological foundations of plant recognition modalities (kin recognition, allelopathy, plant self-/non-self-identification, and growth regulation). The analyses demonstrate that exudate composition is dynamically modulated by plant species identity, rhizosphere microbial communities, and environmental stressors, with signaling functions mediated through both physical signal transduction and chemical signal decoding. This chemical communication system not only drives species-specific interaction strategies but redefines the theoretical frameworks of plant community assembly by establishing causal linkages between molecular signaling events and ecological outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Protection and Biotic Interactions)

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26 pages, 4175 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rhizosphere Engineering in Saline Soils: Role of PGPR and Organic Manures in Root–Soil Biochemical Interactions for Allium Crops

by Tarek Alshaal, Nevien Elhawat and Szilvia Veres

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3075; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193075 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Soil salinity disrupts rhizosphere interactions, impairing root–microbe symbioses, nutrient uptake, and water relations in onion (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.). This study evaluated the efficacy of biofertilizers (Azotobacter chroococcum SARS 10 and Azospirillum lipoferum SP2) and organic [...] Read more.

Soil salinity disrupts rhizosphere interactions, impairing root–microbe symbioses, nutrient uptake, and water relations in onion (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.). This study evaluated the efficacy of biofertilizers (Azotobacter chroococcum SARS 10 and Azospirillum lipoferum SP2) and organic amendments (sewage sludge and poultry manure) in salt-affected soils in Kafr El-Sheikh, Egypt. Five treatments were applied: (T1) control (no amendments); (T2) biofertilizer (3 L/ha for onion, 12 L/ha for garlic) + inorganic P (150 kg/ha P₂O₅ for onion, 180 kg/ha for garlic) and K (115 kg/ha K₂SO₄ for onion, 150 kg/ha for garlic); (T3) 50% inorganic N (160 kg/ha for onion, 127.5 kg/ha for garlic) + 50% organic manure (6000 kg/ha for onion, 8438 kg/ha for garlic) + P and K; (T4) biofertilizer + T3; and (T5) conventional inorganic NPK (320 kg/ha N for onion, 255 kg/ha N for garlic + P and K). Soil nutrients (N, P, K), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), dehydrogenase activity, and microbial populations were analyzed using standard protocols. Plant growth (chlorophyll, photosynthetic rate), stress indicators (malondialdehyde, proline), and yield (bulb diameter, fresh yield) were measured. Treatment T4 increased MBC by 30–40%, dehydrogenase activity by 25–35%, available N (39.7 mg/kg for onion, 35.7 mg/kg for garlic), P (17.9 mg/kg for onion), and K (108 mg/kg for garlic). Soil organic matter rose by 8–12%, and cation exchange capacity by 26–36%. Chlorophyll content improved by 25%, malondialdehyde decreased by 20–30%, and fresh yields increased by 20–30% (12.17 tons/ha for garlic). A soybean bioassay confirmed sustained fertility with 20–25% higher dry weight and 30% greater N uptake in T4 plots. These findings highlight biofertilizers and organic amendments as sustainable solutions for Allium productivity in saline rhizospheres. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Plant-Soil Interactions, 2nd Volume)

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22 pages, 1222 KB

Open AccessArticle

Codon Usage Bias of the Polyphenol Oxidase Genes in Camellia sinensis: A Comprehensive Analysis

by Yeşim Aktürk Dizman

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3074; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193074 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Tea, a widely consumed beverage globally, is a vital agricultural product for many countries. Polyphenol oxidases (PPOs), copper-containing enzymes found in plants, fungi, and animals, are essential for physiological metabolism and enzymatic browning in tea plants (Camellia sinensis). Codon usage bias [...] Read more.

Tea, a widely consumed beverage globally, is a vital agricultural product for many countries. Polyphenol oxidases (PPOs), copper-containing enzymes found in plants, fungi, and animals, are essential for physiological metabolism and enzymatic browning in tea plants (Camellia sinensis). Codon usage bias (CUB), a key evolutionary characteristic, offers valuable insights into species evolution and gene function. However, the codon usage patterns of Camellia sinensis polyphenol oxidase (CsPPO) genes remain undocumented. In this study, we conducted, for the first time, a comprehensive analysis of CUB in 24 CsPPO genes, comparing their CUB profiles with those of other Camellia species (Camellia lanceoleosa, Camellia nitidissima, Camellia ptilophylla) and non-Camellia species (Actinidia chinensis, Cornus florida, Rhododendron vialii) to elucidate potential evolutionary relationships and functional constraints influencing CUB. Nucleotide composition analysis revealed an AT-rich bias, with a preference for G/C-ending codons at the third position. Codon usage indices indicated low expression levels and weak CUB. RSCU and RFSC analyses revealed that the preferred and high-frequency codons were mostly G/C-ending. Codon usage frequency analysis suggested Zea mays as a suitable host for CsPPO gene expression. ENC-GC3s, PR2, and neutrality plots showed natural selection had a stronger impact than mutation on CUB. Additionally, measure independent of length and composition (MILC) values confirmed low PPO gene expression levels, and correlation analyses demonstrated that both nucleotide composition and gene expression affect CUB. Overall, codon usage in CsPPO genes is mainly shaped by natural selection, with weak bias and low expression potential, providing useful insights for future genetic engineering and heterologous expression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Genetic Diversity and Molecular Evolution)

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15 pages, 2171 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Insights into the Effects of Inoculation Density in Areca catechu Tissue Culture

by Jinqi Yan, Yu Li, Zijia Liu, Yusheng Zheng, Jixin Zou and Dongdong Li

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3073; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193073 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Tissue culture technology represents a promising strategy for addressing the supply constraints of Areca catechu seedlings. Significant differences in embryoid proliferation were observed between isolated (CK) and aggregated (GL) culture conditions during subculture. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, transcriptomic analysis was performed. Growth [...] Read more.

Tissue culture technology represents a promising strategy for addressing the supply constraints of Areca catechu seedlings. Significant differences in embryoid proliferation were observed between isolated (CK) and aggregated (GL) culture conditions during subculture. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, transcriptomic analysis was performed. Growth analysis indicated that GL embryoids exhibited the highest growth rate (50.2%) between days 12 and 15, with a peak proliferation efficiency of 50.52%. KEGG analysis identified plant hormone signaling as a key pathway. ELISA quantification demonstrated consistently higher JA levels in CK embryos, peaking at 294.06 ng/g on day 15, while IAA levels were significantly elevated in GL embryos (46.42 ng/g on day 15). The transcription factor AcGIF1 was identified as a central regulator, with further experiments confirming that JA negatively regulates and IAA positively regulates its expression. This study provides critical insights into the molecular mechanisms governing embryoid proliferation in response to inoculation density. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Palmaceae Research: Genomic Insights, Trait Analysis, and Breeding Innovations)

18 pages, 3388 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Alien Chromosome Introgression from Thinopyrum ponticum on Wheat Grain Traits

by Shuwei Zhang, Yu Zhang, Ting Hu, Linying Li, Zihao Wang, Linyi Qiao, Lifang Chang, Xin Li, Zhijian Chang, Peng Zhang and Xiaojun Zhang

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3072; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193072 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Structural variation (SV) serves as a fundamental driver of phenotypic diversity and environmental adaptation in plants and animals, significantly influencing key agronomic traits in crops. Common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), an allohexaploid species, harbors extensive chromosomal SVs and distant hybridization-induced recombination events [...] Read more.

Structural variation (SV) serves as a fundamental driver of phenotypic diversity and environmental adaptation in plants and animals, significantly influencing key agronomic traits in crops. Common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), an allohexaploid species, harbors extensive chromosomal SVs and distant hybridization-induced recombination events that provide critical resources for genetic improvement. This study utilizes non-denaturing fluorescence in situ hybridization (ND-FISH) and oligonucleotide multiplex probe-based FISH (ONPM-FISH) to analyze the karyotypes of 153 BC₁F₄–BC₁F₆ lines derived from the hybrid line Xiaoyan 7430 and common wheat Yannong 1212. The results revealed that Xiaoyan 7430 carries 8 alien chromosome pairs and 20 wheat chromosome pairs (lacking 6B), and Yannong 1212 contains 21 pairs of wheat chromosomes. The parental lines exhibited presence/absence variations (PAVs) on chromosomes 2A, 6A, 5B, 1D, and 2D. Chromosomal variations, including numerical chromosomal variation (NCV), structural chromosomal variation (SCV), and complex chromosomal variation (CCV), were detected in the progeny lines through ONPM-FISH analysis. The tracking of alien chromosomes over three consecutive generations revealed a significant decrease in transmission frequency, declining from 61.82% in BC₁F₄ to 26.83% in BC₁F₆. Telosomes were also lost during transmission, declining from 21.82% in BC₁F₄ to 9.76% in BC₁F₆. Alien chromosome 1J^S, 4J, and 6J exhibited the highest transmission stability and were detected across all three generations. Association analysis showed that YN-PAV.2A significantly affected the length/width ratio (LWR) and grain diameter (GD); YN-PAV.6A, XY-PAV.6A, and PAV.5B increased six grain traits (+2.25%~15.36%); YN-PAV.1D negatively affected grain length (GL) and grain circumference (GC); and XY-PAV.2D exerted positive effects on thousand-grain weight (TGW). Alien chromosomes differentially modulated grain characteristics: 1J^S and 6J both reduced grain length and grain circumference; 1J^S increased LWR; and 4J negatively impacted TGW, grain width (GW), GD, and grain area (GA). Meanwhile, increasing alien chromosome numbers correlated with progressively stronger negative effects on grain traits. These findings elucidate the genetic mechanisms underlying wheat chromosomal variations induced by distant hybridization and their impact on wheat grain traits, and provide critical intermediate materials for genome design breeding and marker-assisted selection in wheat improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Molecular Biology)

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22 pages, 1667 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Mafura Butter Oils from Trichilia emetica and Trichilia dregeana Extracted by Screw-Press from Seeds Collected in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa

by Mncedisi Mabaso, Lungelo Given Buthelezi and Godfrey Elijah Zharare

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3071; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193071 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Trichilia emetica and T. dregeana butter oils are gaining recognition in the cosmeceutical industry, yet comparative data on their yields and bioactive composition remain scarce. This study assessed oil yields, fatty acid profiles, and tocol compositions of kernel and aril oils extracted by [...] Read more.

Trichilia emetica and T. dregeana butter oils are gaining recognition in the cosmeceutical industry, yet comparative data on their yields and bioactive composition remain scarce. This study assessed oil yields, fatty acid profiles, and tocol compositions of kernel and aril oils extracted by screw press from seeds collected in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. T. emetica produced smaller but more numerous seeds (603 per 200 g) than T. dregeana (159). Kernel oil yields were slightly higher in T. emetica (52.86%) than in T. dregeana (50.81%), while aril oils averaged 48.61% and 45.22%, respectively. Kernel oils of both species showed strong oxidative stability, with low peroxide and anisidine values and lower free fatty acid content compared to aril oils. T. emetica kernel oil was dominated by saturated fatty acids (SFAs), particularly palmitic acid (51.8%), and contained high γ-tocopherol (202 mg/kg), supporting applications in soaps, bio-lubricants, and industrial formulations. In contrast, T. dregeana kernel oil was richer in oleic acid (47.6%) and α-tocotrienol, favouring nutraceutical and cosmetic uses. Aril oils were dominated by linoleic acid (24–25%), with T. dregeana aril oil distinguished by elevated α-tocopherol (91.8 mg/kg) and a more diverse tocotrienol profile, making it suitable for antioxidant-rich cosmetics and dietary products. The dual-oil system offers complementary value: kernel oils provide structural stability for industrial applications, while aril oils supply bioactive-rich lipids for health and cosmetic formulations. Seed cakes present additional potential as biofertilizers or feedstock. This study provides the first comparative analysis of kernel and aril oils from T. emetica and T. dregeana, revealing interspecific differences in yield, fatty acid composition, and tocol profiles, and linking these to ecological adaptation and differentiated industrial potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)

15 pages, 4399 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Application of an In Vitro Pollen Viability Assay for Comparative Safety Assessment of Transgenic Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)

by Yuxiao Chen, Xiaochun Zhang, Jiangtao Yang, Diandian Guo, Xujing Wang and Zhixing Wang

Plants 2025, 14(19), 3070; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14193070 - 4 Oct 2025

Abstract

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a vital global forage crop. Transgenic technology promises enhanced yield and quality, but requires rigorous environmental risk assessment, particularly regarding pollen-mediated gene flow, for which standardized protocols are lacking. Based on an optimized in vitro culture medium, [...] Read more.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a vital global forage crop. Transgenic technology promises enhanced yield and quality, but requires rigorous environmental risk assessment, particularly regarding pollen-mediated gene flow, for which standardized protocols are lacking. Based on an optimized in vitro culture medium, this study developed a method to assess alfalfa pollen viability. Using a single-factor experimental design, key assessment parameters were established at 1/4/8 h and 20/30/40 °C. A comparative analysis revealed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in pollen viability between the transgenic line SA6-8 and its non-transgenic parent “ZM-1” within this evaluation system. This result indicates that the genetic modification did not impact the pollen viability of SA6-8. By establishing this in vitro germination-based pollen viability assessment system and comparatively analyzing pollen viability between transgenic alfalfa and its non-transgenic parent under diverse environmental conditions, our approach provides crucial insights for optimizing transgenic alfalfa planting strategies and strengthening biosafety review protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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