Abstract
Despite the pervasive presence of information and communication technologies (ICT) in educational practices, widespread debate persists over a paradox: increased ICT exposure has not been accompanied by commensurate improvements in digital literacy. Using data from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) 2023, this study examines associations between indicators of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement with ICT and students’ computer and information literacy (CIL). After controlling for background covariates, pooled and multigroup path models reveal that out-of-school ICT learning was positively associated with CIL in most systems, whereas associations with in-school ICT learning and school-based instruction in safe and responsible ICT use varied in direction. General ICT self-efficacy and general classroom ICT applications were positively related to CIL across systems, while specialist classroom ICT applications showed negative associations. Expectations for future ICT use were negatively linked to CIL in most systems, and academic-media multitasking showed heterogeneous associations. Shapley decomposition further described the relative importance of explanatory variables. These cross-national findings indicate that not all forms of engagement with ICT are equivalent, pointing to the need for system-specific diagnostics rather than a single cross-national prescription.