Journal of Intelligence

18 pages, 1097 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Evaluation of the Relationship Between Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking: Complementary Metacognitive Processes or Strange Bedfellows?

by Christopher P. Dwyer, Deaglán Campbell and Niall Seery

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020023 - 18 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 972

Abstract

Though both critical thinking and creative thinking are often cited and promoted as important cognitive processes in personal, academic and professional settings, common misconceptualisation of both often leads to confusion for non-experts; for example, with respect to lumping them together erroneously as much [...] Read more.

Though both critical thinking and creative thinking are often cited and promoted as important cognitive processes in personal, academic and professional settings, common misconceptualisation of both often leads to confusion for non-experts; for example, with respect to lumping them together erroneously as much the same thing, completely confusing them for one another or, on the other hand, distinguishing them to such an extent that all genuine overlap is ignored. Given the importance of these processes in real-world scenarios, quality education and ‘metaeducation’ is necessary to ensure their appropriate translation to students and educators, alike. Thus, the aim of the current review is to discuss various perspectives on both critical and creative thinking with particular focus paid to addressing such common misconceptualisation. Detailed discussion is provided with respect to important ways in which they are distinct and overlap. Recommendations for what contexts application of each are appropriate are also provided. Furthermore, implications for such enhanced understanding are discussed, in light of both theory and research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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30 pages, 2277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Cognitive Diagnostic Models to Evaluate the Two-Process Theory of Matrix Reasoning

by Julian Preuß and Franzis Preckel

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020022 - 15 Feb 2025

Viewed by 739

Abstract

Figural matrices are widely used to measure reasoning ability. According to the two-process model of figural matrix reasoning, task performance relies on correspondence finding (linked to induction ability) and goal management (linked to working memory). Cognitive theory suggests that item characteristics (i.e., change [...] Read more.

Figural matrices are widely used to measure reasoning ability. According to the two-process model of figural matrix reasoning, task performance relies on correspondence finding (linked to induction ability) and goal management (linked to working memory). Cognitive theory suggests that item characteristics (i.e., change rules and design principles of figural elements) are related to the two solution processes and impact item difficulties in a multiplicative, interactive manner. This study tested the multiplicative effect hypothesis by comparing two cognitive diagnostic models using additive and multiplicative effect estimations. A 26-item figural matrix test was administered to 633 high-ability individuals across paper-and-pencil and computer formats. The linear logistic test model (LLTM) and least square distance method (LSDM) were applied to Rasch and 2PL item parameters. Contrary to the multiplicative effect hypothesis, the additive LLTM model showed better item parameter reconstruction than the LSDM that includes multiplicative effects. These results suggest that change rules and design principles may independently contribute to the difficulty of figural matrices. Correspondence-finding demands may primarily arise from design principles, while change rules may primarily contribute to difficulty through goal management demands based on their number and complexity. The findings highlight the need to consider item components related to the phenomenological representation of figural elements when explaining solution processes of figural matrices. Implications for cognitive theory and item construction are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

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25 pages, 1372 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Cognitive Abilities and School Achievement: Addressing Challenges Across Adolescence

by Gina C. Lemos, M. Adelina Guisande and Leandro S. Almeida

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020021 - 14 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1470

Abstract

Background: The school curriculum is increasingly aligned with real-world contexts and transversal skills. Simultaneously, conceptions of intelligence now emphasize contextual, motivational, and emotional dimensions. These shifts raise questions about the relevance of classical intelligence tests in predicting academic achievement, particularly during adolescence, a [...] Read more.

Background: The school curriculum is increasingly aligned with real-world contexts and transversal skills. Simultaneously, conceptions of intelligence now emphasize contextual, motivational, and emotional dimensions. These shifts raise questions about the relevance of classical intelligence tests in predicting academic achievement, particularly during adolescence, a time of major curricular and developmental changes. Methods: Two independent samples of students, sixth–ninth grades (n = 1708) and tenth–twelfth grades (n = 3007), were randomly selected from public schools across Portugal. Cognitive abilities were measured by “Bateria de Aptidões Cognitivas” (BAC-AB), with nine subtests combining three contents (spatial, verbal, numerical) and three cognitive processes (comprehension, reasoning, problem solving). School achievement considers students’ grades in Portuguese and Mathematics. Results: Subtest scores were higher in advanced grades, particularly in early adolescence. The correlations between cognitive subtests and academic achievement suggested that alignment between test item content and curriculum subjects is more influential than cognitive processes. Subtest scores explained a larger proportion of variance in academic achievement in basic education than in secondary education. Conclusions: Curricular changes may reduce reliance on classical cognitive abilities for academic achievement, though correlations remain significant. More integrated cognitive skills are emphasized as the curriculum aims to prepare students for understanding complexity, adapting to societal changes, and applying knowledge to respond effectively to challenges in and outside of school. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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13 pages, 1196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Indirect Effects of Executive Planning Functions and Affectivity on the Work Ethic of University Students

by Jorge Vergara-Morales, Milenko Del Valle and Nancy Lepe

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020020 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 704

Abstract

Work ethic represents a key factor for professional performance, as it guides behaviors relevant to the transparency and quality of work practices. Although a wide field of study has been developed, less research has analyzed the indirect influence of affective and cognitive factors [...] Read more.

Work ethic represents a key factor for professional performance, as it guides behaviors relevant to the transparency and quality of work practices. Although a wide field of study has been developed, less research has analyzed the indirect influence of affective and cognitive factors involved in work ethic. Therefore, this study aims to assess the indirect effects of executive planning functions and affectivity on the work ethic of Chilean university students. The purpose is to test the following hypotheses: (1) executive planning functions have an indirect effect on work ethic through moral reasoning; (2) affectivity has an indirect effect on work ethic through moral intuition. The participants were a total of 582 Chilean university students from a university in the north (38.5%), one in the center (35.9%), and one in the southern area (25.6%). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, structural equation models (SEMs), and SEM mediation analysis. The results show the direct effect of moral reasoning (β = 0.47, p < .01) and moral intuition (β = 0.85, p < .01) on work ethic. Furthermore, they support the indirect effect of executive planning functions (β = 0.06, p < .01) and affectivity (β = 0.46, p < .01) on work ethic. The model explains 98% of the variance of work ethic, highlighting the critical roles of moral reasoning and moral intuition as psychological mechanisms that intervene and drive the effect of cognitive and affective factors. Theoretical and practical implications for teaching–learning processes in higher education are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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21 pages, 2877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Learning Environment Perception, Achievement Goals, and the Undergraduate Deep Learning Approach: A Longitudinal Mediation Model

by Tingzhi Han and Guoxing Xu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020019 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 786

Abstract

This study examines the relationship between undergraduates’ learning environment perception, achievement goals, and the deep learning approach in a research-oriented Chinese university with a longitudinal mediation model. A total of 260 undergraduates, including 135 top-notch undergraduates and 125 ordinary undergraduates, participated in all [...] Read more.

This study examines the relationship between undergraduates’ learning environment perception, achievement goals, and the deep learning approach in a research-oriented Chinese university with a longitudinal mediation model. A total of 260 undergraduates, including 135 top-notch undergraduates and 125 ordinary undergraduates, participated in all three rounds of investigation across 18 months. The results revealed that (a) mastery-approach goals and mastery-avoidance goals can partially mediate the longitudinal impact of undergraduate students’ perception of the learning environment on their deep learning approaches, while performance-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals do not serve as longitudinal mediators in the influence of undergraduate students’ perception of the learning environment on their deep learning approaches. (b) There are two longitudinal mediating pathways, namely the mastery-approach goals and mastery-avoidance goals, in the influence process of perceived learning environment on deep learning approaches among undergraduates. (c) The mediating effect of mastery-approach goals on the influence of learning environment perception on undergraduates’ deep learning approaches is more significant than mastery-avoidance goals. The findings of this study will contribute new empirical evidence that can inform teaching reform initiatives aimed at enhancing the learning quality of undergraduates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Approaches to Improving Intelligence)

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17 pages, 1009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Differences in Intelligence on the WISC: A Meta-Analysis on Children with Specific Learning Disabilities

by Lorenzo Esposito and David Giofrè

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020018 - 6 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1900

Abstract

Several studies have examined performance on the Wechsler batteries in typically developing children and adolescents. In particular, some studies suggest that cognitive functioning may differ between males and females. In this framework, the present study aims to investigate, through a meta-analytical approach, whether [...] Read more.

Several studies have examined performance on the Wechsler batteries in typically developing children and adolescents. In particular, some studies suggest that cognitive functioning may differ between males and females. In this framework, the present study aims to investigate, through a meta-analytical approach, whether there are sex differences in the profiles emerging from the WISC battery in children with a Specific Learning Disability. For this purpose, a systematic search was conducted, resulting in a final selection of 12 published studies which utilized the WISC and included at least one group of SLD children of similar ages. Scores obtained in each scale and subtest of the battery were then examined according to the CHC/WISC-V classification. A series of mixed-effects models were fitted to meta-analyze the data. The results highlight some differences favoring males, and others advantaging females. On the one hand, males exhibited higher performances in crystallized intelligence, visual processing, and quantitative knowledge. On the other hand, females showed better performance in short-term memory and processing speed. Nevertheless, no differences in fluid reasoning emerged, which probably did not prompt differences in overall intellectual functioning. From a practical and implications point of view, understanding sex-specific differences seems to be of pivotal importance, since it might trigger the development of ad hoc intervention programs in the clinical and educational context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Changes in Intelligence Across the Lifespan)

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16 pages, 1386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence and Critical Thinking: Relevant Factors for Training Future Teachers in a Chilean Pedagogy Program

by Maritza Palma-Luengo, Nelly Lagos-San Martin and Carlos Ossa-Cornejo

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020017 - 31 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1560

Abstract

Critical thinking has become one of the most notable cognitive skills in education in recent decades since it offers skills for improving knowledge, making decisions, and creativity, among others. While it is considered a mainly cognitive process, recent years have seen strong proposals [...] Read more.

Critical thinking has become one of the most notable cognitive skills in education in recent decades since it offers skills for improving knowledge, making decisions, and creativity, among others. While it is considered a mainly cognitive process, recent years have seen strong proposals regarding its relationship with motivational and emotional processes. A study is presented that analyzes the relationship between critical thinking and emotional intelligence, analyzing the relations and influences between these variables. Two instruments were applied to 658 Chilean pedagogy students with ages ranging from 19 to 47 years old. The results indicate a moderate level of critical thinking and a high level of emotional intelligence, along with a positive and significant but moderately low relationship between emotional intelligence and critical thinking. There are no gender differences, meaning that men and women developed these skills in a similar way, but differences were found between age groups. The study highlights the relevance of promoting both critical thinking and emotional intelligence in training future teachers and the need to generate new studies about how these skills are developed in teacher training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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26 pages, 4489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of a Working Memory Intervention Package on the Working Memory Performance of Primary School Students with Specific Learning Disabilities

by Mehmet Okur and Veysel Aksoy

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020016 - 27 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1844

Abstract

This study examines the effects of a working memory (WM) intervention package on the WM performance of students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLDs). A pre-test post-test experimental design was applied with 40 students, divided equally into experimental (20 students) and control groups (20 [...] Read more.

This study examines the effects of a working memory (WM) intervention package on the WM performance of students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLDs). A pre-test post-test experimental design was applied with 40 students, divided equally into experimental (20 students) and control groups (20 students). Data were collected using the Working Memory Scale (WMS), Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM), and the Working Memory Performance Tasks Form (WM-PTF). The experimental group demonstrated statistically significant improvements in WMS and WM-PTF scores relative to the control group (p < 0.006, d = 1.96 for WMS; d = 1.42 for WM-PTF). Additionally, a positive correlation was observed between the increase in WM performance and intelligence scores, suggesting that intelligence may influence WM gains. In conclusion, the WM intervention package was significant in improving the WM performance of students with SLDs, indicating that such interventions have significant potential for enhancing cognitive functions and memory. These findings highlight the critical role of WM interventions in contributing to the cognitive development of students with learning difficulties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Approaches to Improving Intelligence)

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12 pages, 969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Verbal Irony Questionnaire: An Initial Approach to the Conceptualization and Measurement of Verbal Irony in High Intellectual Ability

by Sylvia Sastre-Riba, Francisco J. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Ignasi Navarro i Ferrando, María Luz Urraca-Martínez and Ramon Cladellas-Pros

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020015 - 27 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1193

Abstract

Figurative language is a complex construct related to intelligence. Psychology and psycholinguistics are trying to understand it from an interdisciplinary perspective, but studies are still scarce, methodologies are heterogeneous, and results are difficult to integrate. Some studies suggest that understanding the cognitive processes [...] Read more.

Figurative language is a complex construct related to intelligence. Psychology and psycholinguistics are trying to understand it from an interdisciplinary perspective, but studies are still scarce, methodologies are heterogeneous, and results are difficult to integrate. Some studies suggest that understanding the cognitive processes underlying figurative language and its forms could provide a new approach to understanding intellectual differences, such as high intellectual ability (HIA), and new instruments to assess it. The language of HIA children develops earlier and includes the use of irony, which involves metalinguistic skills. In this context, the present study aims to offer an instrument, called the verbal irony questionnaire (or VIrQ), to test the comprehension of verbal irony in students with HIA. A convenience sample of n = 169 students with HIA, aged between 7 and 15 years, responded to the VIrQ. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted. The results revealed that 33 items were retained and categorized into four factors. F1, ironic dissociation (14 items); F2, ironic attitude (8 items); F3, ironic constructions (7 items); and F4, reinforced irony echo (4 items). All factors have adequate reliability indices above 0.70 and below 0.95. Finally, new perspectives are also discussed. Full article

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20 pages, 4232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Critical Eye-Tracking Metrics for Identifying Cognitive Strategies in Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices: A Data-Driven Perspective

by Yaohui Liu, Keren He, Kaiwen Man and Peida Zhan

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020014 - 26 Jan 2025

Viewed by 911

Abstract

The present study utilized a recursive feature elimination approach in conjunction with a random forest algorithm to assess the efficacy of various features in predicting cognitive strategy usage in Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices. In addition to item response accuracy (RA) and response time [...] Read more.

The present study utilized a recursive feature elimination approach in conjunction with a random forest algorithm to assess the efficacy of various features in predicting cognitive strategy usage in Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices. In addition to item response accuracy (RA) and response time (RT), five key eye-tracking metrics were examined: proportional time on matrix (PTM), latency to first toggle (LFT), rate of latency to first toggle (RLT), number of toggles (NOT), and rate of toggling (ROT). The results indicated that PTM, RLT, and LFT were the three most critical features, with PTM emerging as the most significant predictor of cognitive strategy usage, followed by RLT and LFT. Clustering analysis of these optimal features validated their utility in effectively distinguishing cognitive strategies. The study’s findings underscore the potential of specific eye-tracking metrics as objective indicators of cognitive processing while providing a data-driven method to identify strategies used in complex reasoning tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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17 pages, 1013 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Mind Under Pressure: What Roles Does Education Play in the Relationship Between Chronic Stress and Cognitive Ability?

by Maximilian Seitz and Diana Steger

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020013 - 23 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1201

Abstract

Chronic stress is an important predictor of mental and physical health, but little is known about its association with cognitive abilities and education during the lifespan. We hypothesized that chronic stress would be negatively correlated with cognitive abilities, particularly crystallized intelligence, and that [...] Read more.

Chronic stress is an important predictor of mental and physical health, but little is known about its association with cognitive abilities and education during the lifespan. We hypothesized that chronic stress would be negatively correlated with cognitive abilities, particularly crystallized intelligence, and that this association would be stronger among individuals with lower educational attainment due to limited stress-coping resources. We used cross-sectional data from the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS SC6), comprising 10,416 adults aged 29 to 71 years (50.80% female; 49.20% male). Fluid and crystallized intelligence were assessed with a reasoning test and a vocabulary test, respectively; chronic stress was assessed with a questionnaire on social stress and anxiety. The tests and the questionnaire were conceptualized for a heterogeneous and large-scale sample. Our results show small negative associations between chronic stress and both fluid and crystallized cognitive abilities, which persist after controlling for demographic variables. However, there were no significant differences between educational groups. Although the study does not address longitudinal patterns, it highlights the complex interaction between stress and cognition, and it underscores the need for further research to explore how educational resources may mitigate the impact of chronic stress on cognitive health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Diversity, Educational Inclusion, Emotional Intelligence, Coping, and Other Factors That Influence Psychological Health and Well-Being)

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26 pages, 1105 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Parental Education, Intelligence, and Personality on the Cognitive Abilities of Gifted Children

by Lina Pezzuti, Morena Farese, James Dawe and Marco Lauriola

J. Intell. 2025, 13(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020012 - 21 Jan 2025

Viewed by 2635

Abstract

Several studies have indicated that parental education predicts children’s intelligence. In contrast, fewer studies have simultaneously analyzed the role of parental intelligence, education, and personality in shaping their children’s giftedness. This study investigated the effects of parental education, cognitive abilities (based on CHC [...] Read more.

Several studies have indicated that parental education predicts children’s intelligence. In contrast, fewer studies have simultaneously analyzed the role of parental intelligence, education, and personality in shaping their children’s giftedness. This study investigated the effects of parental education, cognitive abilities (based on CHC theory), and personality traits (based on the Five-Factor Model) on the expression of gifted children’s cognitive abilities. Sixty-five gifted children (IQ ≥ 120) aged 6 to 14 years (M = 9.91 years; SD = 2.24 years) were assessed using the WISC-IV, while parents (65 mothers, M = 44.00 years; SD = 4.20 years, and 61 fathers, M = 45.70 years; SD = 5.40 years) completed the WAIS-IV and the Big-Five Inventory. The results indicated that maternal education was a key predictor of children’s Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) in bivariate analyses, though its effect was not robust in multivariate models. Children’s Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) was associated with maternal conscientiousness, and fathers’ short-term memory (Gsm) emerged as the primary predictor of children’s Working Memory Index (WMI). Maternal processing speed (Gs) was the strongest predictor of children’s Processing Speed Index (PSI) across both bivariate and multivariate analyses. While personality traits, such as maternal conscientiousness, played a role in facilitating visual-spatial reasoning, their effects were weaker compared to cognitive and educational factors. The findings obtained, which are only partly consistent with data in the literature, highlight the domain-specific influence of parental characteristics on children’s giftedness and underscore the need for further research into the interplay of genetic, cognitive, and environmental factors. Full article

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J. Intell., Volume 13, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 12 articles

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