Harmony-Weakness: Yan Zun’s Theoretical Reconstruction of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness Thought

Abstract

Softness-Weakness constitutes a core category in Laozi’s philosophy, while in Yan Zun’s Laozi zhigui of the Western Han dynasty, Harmony-Weakness becomes the key concept for interpreting Laozi’s thought. This conceptual transformation from Softness-Weakness to Harmony-Weakness both reflects the intellectual background of Confucian–Daoist synthesis in the Han dynasty and marks the creative development of Daoist philosophy during this period. Building upon complete inheritance of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought, Yan Zun achieved a theoretical reconstruction of Daoist philosophy through introducing Harmony—this Confucian core category. At the cosmological level, Yan Zun creatively incorporated Supreme-Harmony into the sequence of the Dao’s generation, establishing its ontological position as the “progenitor” of the myriad things. Through the proposition “Harmony is its destination, Weakness is its function”, Yan Zun endowed Harmony-Weakness with a clear teleological dimension and value orientation, elevating Harmony-Weakness from a survival strategy to a fundamental principle of cosmic generation. At the practical level, through the Harmony-Weakness concept, Yan Zun constructs a complete system integrating self-cultivation and politics, developing Daoist thought from relatively dispersed wisdom discourse into systematic theory. This conceptual transformation transcends the simple opposition between Softness-Weakness and hardness-strength, achieving a unity in which hardness and Softness mutually assist each other under Harmony’s regulation. However, while the introduction of Harmony deepened the theory, it may also have somewhat weakened the critical edge of Softness-Weakness thought, and the substantialization of Supreme-Harmony may have departed from Laozi’s nihilistic spirit. This theoretical tension precisely demonstrates the theoretical dilemmas and historical choices that Daoist thought faced in its Han dynasty development.

1. Introduction

Within the philosophical discourse of pre-Qin Daoism, Softness-Weakness (柔弱 rou ruo) stands not merely as one of Laozi’s 老子 most distinctive conceptual markers, but as a pivotal axis for comprehending his entire philosophical system. Subsequent scholars, when characterizing Laozi’s thought, invariably emphasize its valorization of Softness. The Lüshi Chunqiu (呂氏春秋 lu shi chun qiu) asserts that “Lao Dan esteemed Softness” (老耼貴柔 lao dan gui rou) (Xu 2009, p. 467), while the Zhuangzi 莊子 observes that Laozi “took pliability, weakness, humility, and deference as his outward appearance.” (以濡弱謙下為表 yi ruo ruo qian xia wei biao) (G. Chen 2007, p. 1011). Some scholars have even characterized Laozi’s philosophy as the “way of Softness” (柔道 rou dao) (Bo Wang 2024, p. 434).

Following Laozi, although the concept of Softness-Weakness underwent further development within the Daoist tradition, most interpretations continued along trajectories established by Laozi himself. A notable exception appears in the work of Yan Zun 严遵, a Western Han scholar. In explicating Laozi’s thought, Yan extensively employed the concept of Harmony-Weakness (和弱 he ruo) to replace or supplement Softness-Weakness. Yan’s inheritance of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought extends beyond mere reiteration of the original text; rather, he reconstituted it ontologically within the generative sequence of Dao—De—Shenming (神明 Spiritual-Illumination)—Supreme-Harmony (太和 tai he) and innovatively deployed the composite concept of Harmony-Weakness. Notably, however, when commenting on Chapter 76 of the Daodejing 道德經, Heshang Gong 河上公 employs “harmonious qi” (和氣 he qi) to explain Softness-Weakness: “When humans are born, they contain harmonious qi and embrace essence and spirit, therefore they are Softness-Weakness. When humans die, harmonious qi exhausts and essence and spirit perish, therefore they are hard-strong.” (人生含和氣，抱精神，故柔弱也。人死和氣竭，精神亡，故堅強也 ren sheng han he qi, bao jing shen, gu rou ruo ye. ren si he qi jie, jing shen wang, gu jian qiang ye) (Gong 1993, p. 292). This signifies that Heshang Gong already perceived the internal connection between Harmony and Softness-Weakness, yet he had not directly proposed the concept of Harmony-Weakness. The emergence of this concept marks a significant theoretical transformation in Han dynasty Laozi studies.

In Yan Zun’s philosophical framework, Harmony (和 he) becomes substantiated as the ultimate cosmological state—Supreme-Harmony—while Weakness (弱 ruo) is essentialized as the fundamental attribute of Shenming, the dynamic cause of cosmic generation. Evidently, Weakness no longer functions merely as a competitive strategy opposed to strength (強 qiang) but is elevated to the operative mode of Dao or Shenming. Meanwhile, Harmony is established as both the ultimate state to which all things return and their ontological destination. This signifies that Harmony-Weakness constitutes not a singular lexical unit, but rather a composite structure encompassing ontology, praxis, and spiritual attainment (境界 jingjie). In other words, Laozi’s Softness-Weakness, under Yan Zun’s interpretation, acquires more affirmative ontological implications—it serves not only as a method for self-cultivation and governance, but as the necessary path toward the cosmic order of Supreme-Harmony.

The conceptual transition from Softness-Weakness to Harmony-Weakness represents far more than terminological variation; it embodies profound intellectual–historical significance. This transformation both reflects Han dynasty thinkers’ creative exegesis of pre-Qin Daoist classics and illuminates the syncretic integration of Confucian and Daoist thought characteristic of the Han intellectual milieu. Several questions emerge: Why did Yan Zun emphasize Harmony alongside Weakness? What theoretical deepening does Harmony-Weakness achieve compared to Softness-Weakness? How does this conceptual transformation unfold across cosmological, self-cultivational, and political dimensions? Addressing these questions not only enhances our understanding of Yan Zun’s distinctive philosophical contributions but also provides a crucial entry point for comprehending the intellectual evolution from pre-Qin to Han dynasty Daoism.

Scholarship on Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought has produced abundant results. In recent years, scholars have approached Softness-Weakness from diverse perspectives including metaphysics, political philosophy, and philosophy of life. Guying Chen observes that “the Softness and Weakness condition manifested by Dao in its creative process precisely describes a state of non-action (無為 wuwei),” and that Laozi’s advocacy of Softness-Weakness primarily responds to aggressive assertiveness, with “occupying the lower position” (處下 chu xia) and “non-contention” (不爭 bu zheng) representing concrete manifestations of Softness-Weakness (G. Chen 2008, pp. 159–62). Hong Zang similarly notes that Laozi’s Softness constitutes both the fundamental characteristic and essential content of Dao, as well as the attitude and method by which sages—those who have attained Dao—approach and handle affairs (Zang 2009, pp. 527–33). Regarding the controversial proposition “Softness-Weakness overcomes hardness-strength,” scholars have argued that interpreting it merely as military stratagems or cunning proves reductive; rather, this proposition possesses universal methodological significance, representing the necessary application of Laozi’s general principle of “Dao models itself on spontaneity” (道法自然 dao fa zi ran) or natural non-action across domains of self-cultivation, governance, and military affairs (Wu and Wang 2024, pp. 10–19). Hans-Georg Moeller argues that Laozi’s Softness-Weakness is far from being mere Weakness; rather, it represents the pure vital potential and reproductive power—like water, the feminine, and the infant—that has not been exhausted. It embodies vitality, endurance, and the ultimate force that conquers hardness and strength (Moeller 2006, pp. 23–37). In contrast to these interpretations, Chad Hansen’s research opposes viewing Softness-Weakness as a scheming method for acquiring power. He contends that Softness-Weakness is not an absolute cosmic truth but rather a “heuristic corrective”—a “negative Dao” aimed at breaking people’s attachment to linguistic concepts and conventional values (Hansen 1992, pp. 223–26). Nevertheless, such studies concentrate primarily on the Laozi text itself, with minimal attention to how later commentators interpreted Softness-Weakness thought. Currently, only one article explores Wang Bi’s explication and practicalization of Laozi’s philosophy of Softness1.

Research on Yan Zun and the Laozi zhigui 老子指歸 remains relatively underdeveloped, though recent years have witnessed some representative scholarly contributions. Deyou Wang elaborates the philosophical thought of the Laozi zhigui through three aspects: cosmic evolution, ontology, and the self-generation and self-transformation of myriad things (Yan 2004, pp. 3–18). Sixin Ding provides in-depth explication of the concepts of non-action and spontaneity in the Laozi zhigui, along with its political philosophy (Ding 2018, pp. 53–80). Thomas Michael, through comparative analysis of Laozi, Heshang Gong, Wang Bi 王弼, and Yan Zun’s interpretations of DaodeJing Chapter 42, reveals Yan Zun’s distinctive onto-cosmological synthesis and attempts to restore Yan’s rightful position in Daoist intellectual history (Michael 2025). Fufu Li, through close textual reading, demonstrates how Yan Zun employs intertextual strategies to synthesize the Zhouyi 周易, Zhuangzi, and Huang-Lao thought in explicating the DaodeJing, thereby constructing a coherent intellectual system possessing both cosmological depth and practical guidance (F. Li 2025). Fan Bocheng argues that Yan Zun represents an alternative interpretive tradition of Laozi’s thought prior to the Tang dynasty. He inherited the principles of pre-Qin Daoism, taking “emptiness” (虚 xu) as his ontological root and “Softness” as its operative function (Fan and Brown-Kinsella 2026). However, to date, systematic and comprehensive monographic research on the concept of Harmony-Weakness remains lacking. Existing studies either emphasize Yan Zun’s inheritance from Laozi or focus on other dimensions of his thought, without adequately addressing the distinctiveness of the Harmony-Weakness concept, its relationship to Softness-Weakness, or the intellectual-historical significance of this transformation.

The core argument of this paper is that Yan Zun’s treatment of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought constitutes a genuine theoretical reconstruction rather than mere interpretation or development. This reconstruction manifests in three main aspects: First, by introducing Harmony and substantializing it as Supreme-Harmony, Yan Zun provided Softness-Weakness with a clear teleological destination and ontological foundation. Second, through the substance-function (體用 tiyong) structure of “Harmony is its destination, Weakness is its function,” Yan Zun integrated Laozi’s relatively scattered discussions of Softness-Weakness into a systematic theoretical framework. Third, by revealing the inherent unity between Harmony and Weakness, Yan Zun achieved a deep synthesis of Confucian-Daoist synthesis and created a new theoretical paradigm.

The analytical path of this paper therefore proceeds as follows: First, it provides an in-depth exposition of the philosophical implications of Harmony-Weakness in the cosmological dimension, revealing how Yan Zun elevated Softness-Weakness from Laozi’s practical wisdom to a systematic cosmological principle through the substantialization of Supreme-Harmony and the teleological stipulation of “Harmony is its destination.” Second, it explicates the specific development of Harmony-Weakness in the dimensions of self-cultivation and political philosophy, revealing how Yan Zun constructed a complete system withing these practical areas. Finally, from the perspectives of the nature of theoretical reconstruction and the mechanism of Confucian–Daoist synthesis, it summarizes the intellectual-historical significance of Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept and conducts critical reflection on its theoretical tensions and historical limitations. Through this analytical approach, the paper aims to clarify both the internal logic of Yan Zun’s creative reconstruction and its broader significance for understanding the evolution of Chinese philosophy.

2. Harmony-Weakness in the Cosmological Dimension: From Practical Wisdom to Ontological Construction

In the Daodejing, although the Softness-Weakness thought contains profound cosmological implications, its discursive focus primarily falls on practical wisdom and survival strategy. Laozi explicitly states that “Weakness is the function of the Dao” (弱者，道之用 ruo zhe dao zhi yong) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 110), establishing Weakness as the Dao’s mode of operation. Through the observation that “a man is supple and weak when living but hard and stiff when dead” (人之生也柔弱，其死也堅強 ren zhi sheng ye rou ruo, qi si ye jian qiang) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 185), he reveals the connection between Softness-Weakness and the essence of life. With the statement “nothing under heaven is softer and weaker than water, yet nothing surpasses it in attacking the hard and strong” (天下莫柔弱於水，而攻堅強者莫之能勝，以其無以易之 tian xia mo rou ruo yu shui, er gong jian qiang zhe mo zhi neng sheng) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 187), he articulates the principle that Softness-Weakness overcomes hardness and strength. However, the Laozi does not provide a systematic ontological construction of the cosmological significance of Softness-Weakness. Three key questions remain insufficiently answered in the Daodejing text:

First, the absence of teleology. Laozi emphasizes that “Weakness is the function of the Dao,” clarifying that Weakness is the Dao’s mode of operation, but what is the Dao’s “substance” or ultimate destination? In Laozi, the myriad things’ destination typically receives description as “returning to nothing” (復歸於無物 fu gui yu wu wu) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 31), “returning to the infinite… returning to simplicity” (復歸於無極。……復歸於樸 fu gui yu wu ji… fu gui yu pu) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 74). However, this “returning” is more a negative regression rather than a positive articulation of the ideal state to be achieved. If Weakness is the means, what is the end?

Second, the rupture in ontology. Laozi describes the Dao’s generative process from “non-being” to the myriad things: “The Dao generates one, one generates two, two generates three, three generates the myriad things.” (道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物 Dao sheng yi, yi sheng er, er sheng san, san sheng wan wu) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 117). However, this numerical cosmological schema is overly abstract. How does the Dao transition from absolute emptiness to the concrete heaven, earth, and myriad things? What are the intermediate ontological stages? What is the ontological status of Soft-Weakness in this generative process?

Third, the lack of systematicity. Laozi’s discussions of Soft-Weakness span multiple levels including cosmic generation, the essence of life, and political governance, but these discussions are relatively scattered, and the internal connections among them are not entirely clear.

Yan Zun’s exposition of Harmony-Weakness in the Laozi zhigui constitutes a systematic response to these questions. By introducing Harmony and substantializing it as Supreme-Harmony, Yan Zun not only provided Softness-Weakness with a clear teleological destination but also established a crucial ontological position for Supreme-Harmony in the Dao’s generative sequence, thereby elevating Softness-Weakness from Laozi’s practical wisdom to a systematic cosmological principle.

2.1. The Ontological Status of Harmony: Supreme-Harmony as Ultimate Destination

Chapter 42 of the Daodejing states: “The Dao generates one, one generates two, two generates three, three generates the myriad things. The myriad things carry yin and embrace yang, blending their qi to achieve Harmony.” (道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物。萬物負陰而抱陽，衝氣以為和) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 117). Although this passage mentions Harmony, here Harmony primarily refers to the harmonized state of yin and yang qi within the myriad things and has not been elevated to an ontological height. Laozi’s cosmological schema presents itself as a numerical abstract sequence, lacking substantive stipulations for each stage of generation. More importantly, although Laozi describes the generative process from the Dao to the myriad things, he does not clearly indicate the ultimate destination or purpose of this process.

Yan Zun fundamentally reconstructed this. He not only transformed the abstract numerical sequence into substantive ontological categories (Dao–De–Shenming–Supreme-Harmony) but also endowed the entire cosmic generative process with a clear teleological dimension. In Yan Zun’s system, Supreme-Harmony both serves as a crucial link in the cosmic generative sequence and as the ultimate destination of the Dao’s operation. The establishment of this dual status transformed Harmony from a relatively marginal concept in Laozi’s text into the central pillar of Yan Zun’s cosmology2.

Yan Zun begins the Shangde Bude Pian (上德不德篇 Chapter on Superior Virtue Not Being Virtue) by stating: “That by which heaven and earth come to be, that whereby the myriad categories exist: the Dao is their origin, De is their beginning, Spirit-Illumination is their ancestor, Supreme Harmony is their progenitor.” (天地所由，萬物所以：道為之元，德為之始，神明為宗，太和為祖 tian di suo you, wan wu suo yi: dao wei zhi yuan, de wei zhi shi, shen ming wei zong, tai he wei zu) (Yan 2004, p. 5) This pronouncement clearly presents Yan Zun’s cosmogonic schema: Dao → De → Shenming → Supreme-Harmony→ myriad things. In this sequence, Supreme-Harmony3 has been elevated to the status of “progenitor” of the myriad things.

Why does Supreme-Harmony possess such a high ontological status? In the Mingshen Shuqin Pian (名身孰親篇 Chapter on Which Is Dearer, Fame or Body), Yan Zun further states: “What my nature receives as myself is Dao and De; what it borrows to come to life is Shenming; what it relies upon to take form is Supreme-Harmony.” (我性之所稟為我者，道德也；其所假而生者，神明也；其所因而成者，太和也) (Yan 2004, p. 68). Here, the phrase “what it relies upon to take form is Supreme-Harmony” is crucial. It reveals Supreme-Harmony’s unique ontological function—“formation” (成 cheng). The Dao and De provide the ultimate ground for the existence of the myriad things, representing pure emptiness and potentiality. Shenming provides the internal dynamic for the generation of the myriad things (Ding and Gong 2021, p. 354), serving as the mediator between the formless and the formed. Supreme-Harmony, however, is the immediate matrix through which the myriad things ultimately take shape and establish their concrete states of existence.

This generative sequence forms a striking contrast with Laozi’s “the Dao generates one, one generates two, two generates three, three generates the myriad things.” Laozi’s “one, two, three” are abstract numerical symbols; Yan Zun transforms them into ontological categories with substantial content. Laozi emphasizes the unidirectional process of “generation”; Yan Zun, through the functional differentiation of origin, beginning, ancestor, and progenitor, reveals the internal levels of the generative process. Most critically, while Laozi does not clearly specify the intermediate stages between Dao and things, Yan Zun, by introducing Supreme-Harmony, fills the ontological gap between the metaphysical Shenming and the phenomenal myriad things. Existing scholarship has pointed out that Yan Zun’s core contribution in intellectual history lies in his construction of a rigorous and hierarchical cosmogonic schema, and that he “broke through the Han dynasty cosmogonic model and entered the realm of ‘ontology’.” (Jin 1987, p. 405).

Yan Zun further reveals the logic of this generative sequence: “In heaven’s generation of humans: form depends on qi, qi depends on Harmony, Harmony depends on Shenming, Shenming depends on Dao and De, Dao and De depend on spontaneity, and thus the myriad things persist.” (夫天之生人也：形因於氣，氣因於和，和因於神明，神明因於道德，道德因於自然，萬物以存) (Yan 2004, p. 48). This is a complete causal chain: spontaneity → Dao-De → Shenming → Harmony → qi → form. The statement in the Zhirou Pian (至柔篇 Chapter on Ultimate Softness) is even more explicit: “Heaven and earth are generated from Supreme-Harmony; Supreme-Harmony is generated from emptiness and obscurity.” (天地生於太和，太和生於虛 tian di sheng yu tai he, tai he sheng yu xu ming) (Yan 2004, p. 32) This discussion further elevates the status of Supreme-Harmony—heaven and earth, the most fundamental material existence, directly originate from Supreme-Harmony. After establishing the ontological status of Supreme-Harmony, Yan Zun further completes his reconstruction of Laozi’s cosmology by endowing Harmony with supreme value status and clear teleological significance.

Furthermore, Yan Zun’s philosophical reconstruction of Harmony not only remains at cosmogony’s static positioning but penetrates into the authentic prescription of values, regarding Harmony as existence’s ultimate value. In the Tian Zhi Dao Pian (天之道篇 Chapter on the Way of Heaven), Yan Zun concentrates his discussion on the function of Harmony in cosmology: “Thus, Harmony is: the function of Dao and De, the assistant of Shenming, the regulation of heaven and earth, where the multitude of living beings dwell, the key to all directions, the treasury of spontaneity, the gate of a hundred auspicious signs, and the door of myriad blessings.” (故，和者，道德之用、神明之輔、天地之制、群生所處、萬方之要、自然之府、百祥之門、萬福之戶也) (Yan 2004, p. 331). This series of statements elevates Harmony to a supremely exalted status. Although the Laozi also emphasizes the importance of Harmony, as in “the myriad things carry yin and embrace yang, blending their qi to achieve Harmony,” here he primarily describes the existential state of the myriad things rather than the highest principle of the cosmos. Yan Zun elevates Harmony from an attribute of the myriad things to “the function of Dao and De” and “the regulation of heaven and earth,” giving it fundamental ontological and cosmological significance. This elevation is not a quantitative increase but a qualitative leap—from phenomenal description to ontological stipulation.

In the De Yi Pian (得一篇 Chapter on Attaining Oneness), Yan Zun, through the proposition “Harmony is its destination” endowed the Dao with a clear teleological dimension. In this stipulative statement about the Dao’s essential nature: “oneness is its name; De is its appellation; non-being is its dwelling; non-action is its affair; formlessness is its measure; reversal is its great principle; Harmony is its destination; Weakness is its function.” (一，其名也；德，其號也；無有，其捨也；無為，其事也；無形，其度也；反，其大數也；和，其歸也；弱，其用也) (Yan 2004, p. 25). Harmony and Weakness are assigned different ontological statuses.

The proposition “Harmony is its destination” is extremely important. It defines Harmony as the ultimate destination of the Dao’s operation, endowing Harmony with a strong teleological coloring. In Laozi, the destination of the myriad things is typically described as “returning to the infinite” or “returning to simplicity”, emphasizing a return to the primordial state—a negative, backward-looking view of destination. Yan Zun provided a more positive interpretation of the connotation of “returning”: although cosmic evolution begins from “emptiness”, its purpose is not merely to return to a lifeless void, but rather to achieve a ceaselessly generating, vibrant state of harmony—Supreme-Harmony. From “returning to simplicity” to “returning to Supreme-Harmony”, this represents a shift from negative regression to positive construction. Harmony as returning of the Dao means that the result of the Dao’s operation is achieving the realm of Harmony, while its mode of operation is Weakness. Weakness is the necessary path to realizing Harmony; Harmony is the value destination of Weakness. This means that Harmony is not only the endpoint of generation but also the apex of value.

In summary, through the dual construction of Supreme and “Harmony is its destination”, Yan Zun completed a fundamental reconstruction of Laozi’s cosmology. Supreme-Harmony, as the progenitor of the myriad things, fills the ontological gap in Laozi’s cosmogonic schema between the Dao and things. “Harmony is its destination,” on the other hand, provides a clear teleological orientation for the Dao’s operation, making Softness-Weakness no longer merely a survival strategy but rather the necessary path toward an ideal state. This reconstruction, by introducing a new ontological category (Supreme-Harmony) and a new theoretical dimension (teleology), achieved a theoretical leap from practical wisdom to ontological construction.

2.2. The Dynamic Mechanism of Weakness: Softness-Weakness as the Virtue of Shenming

If Harmony constitutes the blueprint and destination of cosmic generation, then Weakness serves as the dynamic mechanism and operational principle enabling this generative process to proceed smoothly. In the Laozi, the status of Weakness has already received high affirmation—“Weakness is the function of the Dao” explicitly establishes it as the Dao’s mode of operation. However, Laozi primarily demonstrates the effectiveness of Weakness from the perspective of practical results, such as “Softness-Weakness overcomes hardness and strength”, without deeply revealing the internal mechanism by which Weakness is able to function. Why is Weakness “the function of the Dao”? What role does it actually play in the process of cosmic generation?

In the Dao Sheng Yi Pian, Yan zun reveals Softness-Weakness’s function from cosmogonic perspectives: “The birth of myriad things all originates in emptiness and begins in nonbeing. Turning their backs on yin and facing yang, returning to Softness and departing from hardness, pure and tranquil without movement, mental intention without activation—those whose forms expand extensively and whose nature and destiny flow unobstructed achieve this because they contain Harmony and Softness-Weakness while Dao remains formless. Therefore, emptiness, nothingness, formlessness, minuteness, scarcity, and Softness-Weakness constitute that by which heaven and earth arise and whereby myriad things are born” (萬物之生也，皆元於虛始於無。背陰向陽，歸柔去剛，清靜不動，心意不作，而形容修廣、性命通達者，以含和柔弱而道無形也。是故，虛無無形微寡柔弱者，天地之所由興，而萬物之所因生也) (Yan 2004, pp. 54–55).

The expression “containing Harmony and Softness-Weakness” proves crucial—the character “contain” indicates that Harmony is not external to Softness-Weakness but is intrinsic within it. This is not a simple superimposition of Harmony and Softness-Weakness but rather Harmony internalized within Softness-Weakness, making Softness-Weakness a kind of Softness-Weakness that “contains Harmony”. Yan Zun’s exposition of Weakness transcends both the deficiency of physical strength and strategic displays of Weakness, elevating it to a fundamental attribute of Shenming4 and revealing Weakness’s unique function in cosmic generation. More importantly, Yan Zun emphasizes that Weakness does not exist in isolation but is rather Softness-Weakness that “contains Harmony”—only Softness-Weakness that has internalized Harmony is truly a state possessing vitality and generative power. This discussion not only deepens the understanding of Weakness but also reveals the inherent unity between Harmony and Weakness.

Although the Laozi emphasizes that Softness-Weakness is one of the essential attributes of life, it primarily demonstrates its effectiveness from the perspective that “Softness-Weakness overcomes hardness and strength,” without clearly explicating the internal mechanism by which Softness-Weakness can become a generative force. Through the concept of “containing Harmony”, Yan Zun reveals that the generative power of Softness-Weakness derives from its inherent Harmony. This insight is extremely profound: mere “emptiness and nothingness” or “Soft-Weakness” might devolve into vacuity or powerlessness; it is precisely the internal governance of Harmony that transforms these seemingly passive qualities into positive generative forces. The myriad things are able to generate and develop not because they are simply soft and weak, but because they contain Harmony within their Softness-Weakness—the harmonization of yin and yang, the complementarity of hardness and Softness.

Yan Zun keenly observed that the cosmic transition from nonbeing to being must rely upon an extremely weak, delicate, non-resistant force. Softness-Weakness and “emptiness, nothingness, formlessness, minuteness, scarcity” are juxtaposed as the source of heaven, earth, and myriad things’ arising. Why must it be Softness-Weakness? Because hardness-strength signifies fixation, ossification, and exclusion, whereas Softness-Weakness signifies unfixedness, fluidity, and inclusion. Only by maintaining the state of Weakness can Dao-substance preserve its infinite possibility and openness, accommodating the myriad things’ generation.

In the Bu Chu Hu Pian (不出户篇 Chapter of Without Leaving the Door), Yan Zun further reveals the Harmony-Weakness mechanism by tracing individual life’s origin: “The root of my birth lies in Dao-De, gestated yet not yet born, whereby forms are completed, reaching emergence from darkness, thereby knowing the great pervasiveness of profound subtlety, delicate fineness, Harmony-Weakness, and smooth lubrication, and the great achievement of non-knowledge, non-consciousness, non-action, and non-affairs” (本我之生，在於道德，孕而未育，所以成形，至於出冥，以知深微纖妙和弱潤滑之大通也、無知無識無為無事之有大功也) (Yan 2004, p. 97).

Here “profound subtlety, delicate fineness, Harmony-Weakness, and smooth lubrication” describes life’s formative process, with Harmony-Weakness regarded as equally important as “profound subtlety and delicate fineness” and “smooth lubrication”. Yan Zun creatively employs the phrase “Harmony-Weakness and smooth lubrication” to characterize Dao’s operational mechanism. Here Weakness, like lubricant, eliminates friction and obstruction in the cosmic generative process, enabling qi to circulate smoothly, achieving “great pervasiveness”.

Laozi uses water as a metaphor to illustrate the power of Softness-Weakness: “Nothing under heaven is softer and weaker than water, yet nothing surpasses it in attacking the hard and strong”, but he primarily emphasizes the result—Softness-Weakness ultimately overcomes hardness and strength. Yan Zun, by contrast, deeply reveals the process—how Weakness, through the method of “lubrication,” ensures the smooth progression of cosmic generation. This discussion reveals Weakness’s unique function in cosmic generation: it is not a manifestation of incapacity but rather a necessary condition for ensuring the smooth progression of the cosmic generative process.

Moreover, Yan Zun closely links Weakness with Shenming—an important contribution to Daoist theory of heart-mind and nauure (心性論 xin xing lun)5. In the Sheng Ye Rou Ruo Pian (生也柔弱篇 Chapter on Life Being Soft and Weak), he states: “Therefore, Shenming and sagely wisdom are the constant masters of life; Softness-Weakness and tranquil stillness are Shenming’s repository” (故神明聖智者，常生之主也；柔弱虛靜者，神明之府也 gu shen ming sheng zhi zhe, chang sheng zhi zhu ye; rou ruo xu jing zhe, shen ming zhi fu ye) (Yan 2004, p. 323). Yan Zun regards Shenming as life’s master, the “constant master of life”. However, this master is not a lofty, commanding authoritarian but an extremely sensitive spiritual entity requiring specific environments for dwelling. “Shenming’s repository” signifies that “Softness-Weakness and tranquil stillness” constitute Shenming’s dwelling place. This indicates that only by maintaining the state of “Softness-Weakness and tranquil stillness” can Shenming peacefully reside within; otherwise, Shenming will depart and life will proceed toward decay.

Chapter 76 of the Laozi states: “In life, humans are soft and weak; in death, they are hard and strong. The myriad things, grasses and trees, in life are soft and supple; in death, they are withered and dry. Therefore, the hard and strong are companions of death; the soft and weak are companions of life.” (人之生也柔弱，其死也堅強。萬物草木之生也柔脆，其死也枯槁。故堅強者死之徒，柔弱者生之徒) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 185) Through the contrast between life and death, Laozi reveals the connection between Softness-Weakness and life, but this connection remains more an observation at the phenomenal level. Yan Zun, however, penetrates to the ontological level, revealing the mechanism behind this phenomenon: the essence of life lies in the dwelling of Shenming, and Shenming can only reside in places of “Softness-Weakness, emptiness, and tranquility.” From phenomenal description to mechanism revelation, this represents an important deepening of Laozi’s thought by Yan Zun.

Yan Zun further illustrates through human life’s course: “Therefore, when humans are first born, bones are weak and sinews soft, blood and qi circulate, mental intention unified, spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful; the face possesses radiance, the body lustrous brightness, movements harmonious and pleased, the hundred joints firm and vital; with each passing day life grows, with each passing month clarity increases. Why? Because spirit dwells within. When old, bones dry and sinews tighten, hair whitens and flesh withers, food and drink tasteless, hearing and sight unperceptive; qi-strength daily diminishes, movements monthly decline, thought and consideration confused, choices mutually contradictory. When dead, form withered and appearance dried, tongue retracted and body extended. Why? Because spirit has departed” (是以，人始生也，骨弱筋柔，血氣流行，心意專一，神氣和平；面有榮華，身體潤光，動作和悅，百節堅精；時日生息，旬月聰明。何則?神居之也。及其老也，骨枯筋急，發白肌羸，食飲無味，聽視不聰；氣力日消，動作月衰，思慮迷惑，取舍相違。及其死也，形槁容枯，舌縮體伸。何則?神去之也) (Yan 2004, p. 325).

In infancy, with “bones weak and sinews soft” and “spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful”, Shenming dwells within and vital force flourishes; in old age, with “bones dry and sinews tight”, having lost Softness-Weakness and peace, Shenming departs and life approaches termination. The phrase “spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful” proves particularly important, directly linking “harmonious peace” with Shenming’s dwelling. Therefore, within Yan Zun’s ontology, Weakness constitutes the necessary condition for maintaining life’s existence and cosmic vitality. It represents not incompetence’s manifestation but the sole vessel for absorbing and nurturing Shenming—this higher energy. Once subjects become hard-strong, agitated, and multitudinously desirous, Shenming feels uncomfortable and departs. Once Shenming departs, life becomes like withered wood, proceeding toward death.

2.3. The Internal Logic of “The Inseparability of Substance-Function” (體用相即 Ti Yong Xiang Ji)

Through the above analysis, we observe that Yan Zun’s proposition in the De Yi Pian—“Harmony is its destination; Weakness is its function”—constructs a precise substance-function logical closed loop. The profundity of this proposition lies not only in its inheritance of the Laozi’s idea that “Weakness is the function of the Dao,” but more importantly, in its development of Laozi’s relatively singular “function” into a complete substance-function structure by introducing Harmony as purpose and destination. Although the Laozi emphasizes “Weakness is the function of the Dao,” establishing the important status of Weakness, its primary focus is on the level of “function”—how the Dao operates, how it exercises its efficacy. As for what the “substance” of the Dao is and what the ultimate purpose of the Dao’s operation is, the Laozi does not provide clear positive answers. Through “Harmony is its destination”, Yan Zun provides a teleological complement to “Weakness is its function,” making it a complete substance–function structure.

This proposition clearly demarcates the functional division between Harmony and Weakness. “Weakness is its function”—this is methodology: in the myriad things’ generation and operation, one must consistently implement Softness-Weakness principles—non-action, non-contention, occupying the lower position, diminishing and diminishing again. This is the means, process, and the manner whereby Dao acts upon myriad things. “Harmony is its destination”—this is teleology: through implementing the method of Weakness, the ultimately achieved state is supreme Harmony. This is the result, destination, and the perfect order wherein myriad things each obtain their proper place.

In the Tian Zhi Dao Pian, Yan Zun further expounds how Harmony regulates hardness and Softness: “Now Harmony’s relation to things: hard yet not breaking, soft yet not curling; in heaven it serves as the cord, on earth as the level, in yang as the compass, in yin as the carpenter’s square. Neither proceeding nor stopping, neither giving nor taking—things through Softness-Weakness, qi through hardness-strength, in movement nothing unregulated, in stillness nothing ungiven” (夫和之於物也，剛而不折，柔而不卷，在天為繩，在地為準，在陽為規，在陰為矩；不行不止，不與不取，物以柔弱，氣以堅強，動無不制，靜無不與) (Yan 2004, p. 331). Harmony’s function does not abolish either hardness or Softness but enables each to obtain its proper place, mutually complementing. “Hard yet not breaking” signifies maintaining appropriate hardness without breaking; “soft yet not curling” signifies maintaining appropriate Softness without curling. This constitutes dynamic balance rather than static opposition.

The Laozi establishes an oppositional relationship between Softness-Weakness and hardness-strength through “Softness-Weakness overcomes hardness and strength.” Although this contains profound insight into mutual transformation, it can easily be understood as a binary opposition of either-or. Through the introduction of Harmony, Yan Zun transcends this simple opposition: “hard yet not breaking, soft yet not curling” means that under the governance of Harmony, both hardness and Softness obtain their appropriate positions. This represents a theoretical leap from opposition to unity.

This substance–function relationship reveals profound reverse-foundational logic: only by maintaining seemingly negative Weakness can one achieve affirmatively complete Harmony. Yan Zun repeatedly demonstrates that any attempt to achieve Harmony through means of strength ultimately proves counterproductive. Because strength inevitably provokes opposition and resistance, causing qi-dispersal and spirit-exhaustion, thereby destroying supreme Harmony’s foundation. Only Weakness, through its non-contention and inclusion, can maximally reduce internal systemic friction and depletion, thereby enabling yin-yang qi to communicate smoothly, ultimately realizing supreme Harmony.

In the Rou Ruo Yu Shui Pian (柔弱於水篇 Chapter of Softness-Weakness in Water), Yan Zun further elaborates this logic through water’s example. He indicates that water “advances and retreats, bends and extends close to Dao because its bodily form is soft-weak, movement and stillness await proper timing, it establishes no leading sound, harmonious, yielding, moist, and smooth” (進退屈伸近於道者也，以其形體柔弱，動靜待時，不設首響，和淖潤滑也 jin tui qu shen jin yu dao zhe ye, yi qi xing ti rou ruo, dong jing dais hi, bu she shou xiang, he chou run hua ye) (Yan 2004, p. 338). Water’s power lies not only in its “bodily form being soft-weak” but in its being “harmonious, yielding, moist, and smooth”. These four characters closely integrate Harmony with water’s characteristics, indicating that water’s ability to “strike stones and penetrate metal, collapse mountains and breach embankments” (觸石貫金，崩山潰堤 chu shi guan jin, beng shan kui di) (Yan 2004, p. 338) precisely stems from its being both Softness-Weakness and harmonious-yielding—harmonious, smooth, adjusting at proper times.

Through this logic, Yan Zun elevates Laozi’s survival wisdom into a universal cosmic law: in a cosmos filled with change and potential conflict, only through maintaining Weakness can one achieve Harmony’s permanence. This constitutes the ontological essence of the Harmony-Weakness perspective.

In summary, in the cosmological dimension, Yan Zun completed a theoretical reconstruction of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought through the integrated unity of Harmony and Weakness. This reconstruction manifests on three levels: First, through the substantialization of Supreme-Harmony, Yan Zun provided Softness-Weakness with a clear teleological destination and ontological foundation, remedying the teleological absence in Laozi’s cosmology. Supreme-Harmony, as the progenitor of the myriad things, fills the ontological gap between the metaphysical Shenming and the phenomenal myriad things. Second, by revealing the generative mechanism of “containing Harmony in Softness-Weakness” and the life principle of “the dwelling of Shenming”, Yan Zun deepened understanding of why Weakness is effective. Third, through the substance-function structure of Harmony and Weakness, Yan Zun integrated Laozi’s relatively scattered discussions of Softness-Weakness into a systematic cosmological theory. This substance-function structure not only clarifies the functional division of labor between Harmony and Weakness but also reveals their reciprocal grounding relationship—only through Weakness can Harmony be achieved. This is not a simple interpretation of Laozi’s thought but rather, through the introduction of a new ontological category, a new theoretical dimension, and a new logical structure, achieves a fundamental transformation from practical wisdom to ontological construction.

3. Harmony-Weakness in the Dimensions of Self-Cultivation and Political Theory

After establishing the ontological foundation of Harmony-Weakness in the cosmological dimension, Yan Zun further extended this theory to the practical levels of self-cultivation and statecraft. This extension is not a simple application but rather, based on the isomorphic logic of governing the state is like governing the body, a transformation of metaphysical cosmic principles into concrete practical principles. In fact, in the Laozi zhigui, self-cultivation and statecraft form an inseparable whole. Alan K.L. Chan has elaborated in detail on how Yan Zun closely linked personal self-cultivation with political philosophy, though his analysis centers specifically on the concept of “spontaneity” (Chan 1998).

Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought itself possesses a strong practical orientation. From the perspective of self-cultivation, Laozi proposes such propositions as “maintaining Softness is called strength” (守柔曰強 shou rou yue qiang) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 140) and “concentrating qi to achieve Softness” (專氣致柔 zhuan qi zhi rou) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 22). From the political perspective, Laozi advocates “using Softness-Weakness to overcome hardness and strength” and “through my non-action the people transform themselves” (我無為而民自化 wo wu wei er min zi hua) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 150). However, the Laozi’s exposition still exhibits three problems: First, insufficient theoretical grounding—although Laozi emphasizes the importance of “maintaining Softness”, he primarily demonstrates this from the level of empirical observation, lacking deep ontological support. Second, vague practical pathways—how does one concretely practice “maintaining Softness”? How does one avoid devolving into Weakness and incompetence while maintaining Softness-Weakness? These specific questions of cultivation method are not systematically expounded in the Laozi. Third, the negativity of value orientations—Laozi’s philosophy of self-cultivation and statecraft often presents itself in negative terms, such as “non-action”, “non-contention”, “occupying the lower position”, and “eliminating desires” (去欲 qu yu), but what positive state is ultimately to be achieved?

By introducing the concept of Harmony-Weakness, Yan Zun systematically responds to these questions. At the level of self-cultivation theory, he provides an ontological foundation for Softness-Weakness through the theory of Shenming, offers a clear cultivation pathway through “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness” (體和襲弱 ti he xi ruo) (Yan 2004, p. 151), and provides positive value orientations through concepts such as “spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful” (神氣和平 shen qi he ping) (Yan 2004, p. 325). At the political level, through propositions such as “taking Harmony-Weakness as primary” (和弱為主 he ruo wei zhu) (Yan 2004, p. 336) and “harmonious compliance brings flourishing” (和順而昌 he shun er chang) (Yan 2004, p. 57), he elevates Softness-Weakness from personal cultivation wisdom to an objective law of state governance, providing empirical evidence through the historical experience of the Qin and Chu states’ collapse.

3.1. Harmony-Weakness in the Self-Cultivational Perspective

Yan Zun’s self-cultivation theory does not remain at the experiential level of longevity arts or general moral exhortation, but establishes itself upon his distinctive theory of spirit-form (形神論 xing shen lun)6. He profoundly perceives that life’s essence lies in the union of Shenming and “form-qi” (形氣 xing qi), while the core factor determining whether these two can remain together durably is precisely Harmony-Weakness.

To understand Harmony-Weakness’s function in self-cultivation, one must first clarify Yan Zun’s ontological presuppositions regarding life’s structure. In Yan Zun’s view, humans are not purely material entities but complex systems constituted by “spirit” (神 shen), “essence” (精 jing), “form” (形 xing), and “qi”, wherein Shenming occupies an absolutely governing position. In the Chu Sheng Ru Si Pian (出生入死篇 Chapter of Emerging from Life Entering Death), Yan Zun provides a precise delineation of life’s internal structure:

“Now life’s relation to form: spirit serves as its stem, essence as its root, the camp and ethereal souls as palace and chamber, the nine orifices as gates and doors, acuity and clarity as attending emissaries, emotions and intentions as vehicles for excitement, souls as left and right attendants, blood and qi as troops and followers. Advancing, it shifts with Dao; retreating, it furls and unfurls with De. Soaring in Softness-Weakness, dwelling in emptiness-nothingness, bending and extending, bowing and rising, together harmonious with the times” (夫生之於形也，神為之蒂，精為之根，營爽為宮室，九竅為戶門，聰明為侯使，情意為乘興，魂魄為左右，血氣為卒徒; 進與道推移，退與德卷舒，翱翔柔弱, 棲息虛無，屈伸俯仰，與時和俱).

(Yan 2004, p. 120)

This discourse establishes Shenming’s position as life’s governor and central pivot. The physical form, nine orifices, emotions-intentions, blood-qi, etc., all serve as Shenming’s appendages and instruments. More crucially, Yan Zun here indicates Shenming’s transcendental operational trajectory—“soaring in Softness-Weakness, dwelling in emptiness-nothingness, bending and extending, bowing and rising, together harmonious with the times”. This signifies that as a formless, imageless, ceaselessly generative spiritual entity, Shenming can freely circulate and dwell only within an open, soft, unobstructed internal environment. Weakness provides the spatial elasticity required for Shenming’s operation, while Harmony guarantees dynamic equilibrium when Shenming dwells. In other words, Shenming’s nature naturally accords with Softness-Weakness and Harmony.

Although the Laozi mentions such self-cultivation propositions as “carrying the corporeal soul and embracing oneness” (载营魄抱一 zai yingpo bao yi) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 22) and “concentrating qi to achieve Softness”, suggesting the relationship between spirit and body, it does not systematically expound on the internal structure of life. Through the theory of Shenming, Yan Zun not only reveals the hierarchical structure of life but, more importantly, clarifies the essential connection between Shenming and Softness-Weakness. This is no longer observation at the empirical level but rather necessity at the ontological level—the nature of Shenming determines that it can only dwell in Softness-Weakness and emptiness-nothingness.

Building upon this foundation, Yan Zun traces life’s perfect form in its primordial state. The Bu Chu Hu Pian states: “The root of my birth lies in Dao-De, gestated yet not yet born, whereby forms are completed, reaching emergence from darkness, thereby knowing the great pervasiveness of profound subtlety, delicate fineness, Harmony-Weakness, and smooth lubrication, and the great achievement of no-knowledge, no-consciousness, non-action, and non-affairs” (本我之生, 在於道德, 孕而未育, 所以成形, 至於出冥, 以知深微纖妙和弱潤滑之大通也、無知無識無為無事之有大功也) (Yan 2004, p. 97).

“The root of my birth” designates life’s authentic state; at the moment it departs the formless realm and manifests as physical form, its internal essence precisely exhibits “profound subtlety, delicate fineness, Harmony-Weakness, and smooth lubrication”. Here Harmony-Weakness receives transcendental ontological attributes—it is not a posteriori acquired skill but the principle of “great pervasiveness” that life inherits when emerging from the maternal body. Therefore, self-cultivation’s essence does not involve seeking new powers externally but rather how to preserve and return to this primordial state of Harmony-Weakness, ensuring that Shenming does not dissipate.

Since life’s essence is Harmony-Weakness and governed by Shenming, what then constitutes the essence of death and aging? Yan Zun enters through this angle, constructing a life philosophy of considerable theoretical depth. He highly abstracts life’s two entirely different evolutionary directions as “life’s comrades” (生之徒 sheng zhi tu) and “death’s comrades” (死之徒 si zhi tu). In the Chu Sheng Ru Si Pian, Yan Zun provides clear demarcation:

“Therefore, emptiness, nothingness, clarity, tranquility, minuteness, scarcity, Softness, Weakness, lowliness, diminishment, timeliness, Harmony, frugality—these thirteen in all are life’s comrades. Substance, being, turbidity, agitation, manifestation, multitude, hardness, strength, height, fullness, excess, arrogance, wastefulness—these thirteen are death’s comrades. Why is this so? The sage’s Way: in movement there is that which it depends upon, in stillness there is that to which it responds. The four limbs and nine orifices—these thirteen in all are the external instruments of death and life. The affairs of emptiness and substance, the transformations of hardness and Softness—these are death and life’s internal numbers. Therefore, they are spoken of as thirteen” (是故，虛、無、清、靜、微、寡、柔、弱、卑、損、時、和、嗇, 凡此十三，生之徒；實、有、濁、擾、顯、眾、剛、強、高、滿、過、泰、費，此十三者，死之徒也。夫何故哉?聖人之道，動有所因，靜有所應。四支九竅，凡此十三，死生之外具也；虛實之事，剛柔之變, 死生之內數也。故以十三言諸).

(Yan 2004, p. 124)

Within this group of binary oppositional categories, Yan Zun aligns “Softness, Weakness, Harmony” together with “emptiness, nothingness, clarity, tranquility” as “life’s comrades”, while aligning “hardness, strength” together with “substance, being, turbidity, agitation” as “death’s comrades”. Yan Zun deliberately emphasizes that the external “four limbs and nine orifices” merely serve as life phenomena’s objective carriers, while the true core determining life and death lies in “the affairs of emptiness and substance, the transformations of hardness and Softness”.

Chapter 50 of the Laozi states: “Emerging from life, entering into death. The companions of life number thirteen; the companions of death number thirteen.” (出生入死。生之徒十有三，死之徒十有三) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 134). However, the specific referent of “thirteen” has been subject to various interpretations throughout history. As Wang Bi explains: “The ‘thirteen’ means something like ‘three parts out of ten’. Those who take the path of life, at the utmost extreme of preserving life, have three parts out of ten; those who take the path of death, at the utmost extreme of complete death, also have three parts out of ten” (十有三，猶雲十分有三分。取其生道，全生之極，十分有三耳；取死之道，全死之極，亦十分有三耳) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 135); Heshang Gong states: “This means that the categories of life and death each have thirteen, referring to the nine orifices and four limbs” (言生死之類各有十三，謂九竅四關也) (Gong 1993, p. 193). Yan Zun creatively interprets this as two sets of opposing life principles, clearly indicating that what determines life and death is not the external physical form but rather the internal “affairs of emptiness and substantiality, transformations of Softness and hardness.” This interpretation develops the Laozi’s relatively vague view of life and death into a clear and operational philosophy of life.

Why must “substance”, “being”, “hardness”, “strength” inevitably lead toward death? This is because “substance” and “being” signify extreme saturation and closure of life-space, while “hardness” and “strength” signify excessive condensation and ossification of life-energy. When a person fills with worldly desires and artificial contrivances, their physical form and mentality tend toward “hardness-strength”. This “hard-strong” physical and psychological state destroys the “tranquil stillness” and Softness-Weakness environment upon which Shenming depends for survival. Compressed and disturbed, Shenming inevitably chooses to flee.

In the Sheng Ye Rou Ruo Pian, through sketching the physiological and psychological changes across a human life, Yan Zun further reveals the internal logic of “Shenming’s departure and dwelling”:

“Therefore, when humans are first born, bones are weak and sinews soft, blood and qi circulate, mental intention unified, spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful; the face possesses radiance, the body lustrous brightness, movements harmonious and pleased, the hundred joints firm and vital; with each passing day life grows, with each passing month clarity increases. Why? Because spirit dwells within. When old, bones dry and sinews tighten, hair whitens and flesh withers, food and drink tasteless, hearing and sight unperceptive; qi-strength daily diminishes, movements monthly decline, thought and consideration confused, choices mutually contradictory. When dead, form withered and appearance dried, tongue retracted and body extended. Why? Because spirit has departed” (是以，人始生也，骨弱筋柔，血氣流行，心意專一，神氣和平；面有榮華，身體潤光，動作和悅，百節堅精；時日生息，旬月聰明。何則?神居之也。及其老也，骨枯筋急，發白肌羸，食飲無味，聽視不聰；氣力日消，動作月衰，思慮迷惑，取舍相違。及其死也，形槁容枯，舌縮體伸。何則?神去之也).

(Yan 2004, p. 325)

This passage reveals life’s flourishing and declining underlying logic: “spirit dwelling” brings life; “spirit departing” brings death. The fundamental reason infancy displays boundless vitality lies in its physical characteristics being “bones weak and sinews soft” and its spiritual state being “spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful”. Precisely this natural Harmony-Weakness constitutes the perfect vessel for retaining Shenming. Conversely, aging and death are not simply temporal passage but the process whereby the physical form gradually proceeds toward “bones dry and sinews tight” and blood-qi gradually loses the peaceful “hardening-strengthening”.

The Laozi reveals the importance of Softness-Weakness through the contrast between life and death but fails to explain why Softness-Weakness can preserve life while hardness-strength leads to death. Through the theory of “Shenming’s dwelling and departure”, Yan Zun provides a complete causal chain: the essence of life is Shenming → Shenming can only reside in places of “Softness-Weakness, emptiness, and tranquility” → maintaining Softness-Weakness results in “spirit dwelling” (神居 shen ju), becoming hard and strong results in “spirit departing” (神去 shen qu) → “spirit dwelling” means life, “spirit departing” means death. This theoretical construction transforms the Laozi’s empirical observations into a systematic philosophy of life.

After clarifying the life principles of “strength means death,” “Weakness means life,” and “spirit remaining means existence”, how does one practically maintain Harmony-Weakness and retain Shenming? The self-cultivation principles proposed in the Laozi, such as “manifesting the plain and embracing the simplicity, diminishing selfishness and reducing desires” (見素抱樸，少私寡欲 jian su bao pu, shao si gua yu) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 45), “learning daily increases, pursuing the Dao daily decreases” (為學日益，為道日損 wei xue ri yi, wei dao ri sun) (Bi Wang 2008, pp. 127–8), and “not seeing what is desirable keeps the heart-mind from disorder” (不見可欲，使民心不亂 bu jian ke yu, shi min xin bu luan) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 8) all point to one core—“diminishment” (損 sun), eliminating acquired artificial contrivances. However, Laozi primarily emphasizes what to “eliminate,” while relatively little attention is devoted to what to “establish”—how to actively construct a Softness-Weakness body.

Yan Zun logically derives his self-cultivation practice’s core praxis theory. This praxis theory manifests as a dual structure of breaking down and building up: at the negative level performing subtraction—eliminating hard-strong affairs; at the positive level performing addition—constructing the harmonious-weak body.

In the Shan Jian Pian (善建篇 Chapter of Excellence in Establishing), Yan Zun provides highly condensed summary of this self-cultivational approach: “Therefore, the sage eliminates strength, eliminates artifice, eliminates knowledge, eliminates worthiness. Establishing Dao and embracing De, collecting essence and storing spirit, embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness, treading earth and wearing heaven… Therefore, governing the self, then one’s nature becomes simple and emotions easy, mind penetrating and will pervading, what is distant becomes not distant, what is obscure becomes illuminated. Valuing spirit and cherishing qi, taking things lightly and names as minute, thought and consideration unconfused, blood and qi harmonious and peaceful” (是以，聖人去力，去巧，去知，去賢；建道抱德，攝精蓄神，體和襲弱，履地戴天。……故，治之於身，則性簡情易，心達志通，遠所不遠，明所不明；重神愛氣，輕物細名，思慮不惑，血氣和平) (Yan 2004, p. 151). This theory of cultivation that “combines breaking down and building up” not only inherits Laozi’s spirit of “diminishment” but also, through “embodying harmony and practicing weakness,” provides a clear positive direction for cultivation, making self-cultivation practice more operational.

Yan Zun first proposes “eliminating strength, eliminating artifice, eliminating knowledge, eliminating worthiness”. “Strength”, “artifice”, “knowledge”, and “worthiness” precisely constitute the action-oriented and hard-strong things humans develop through socialization processes—the chief culprits causing mental distraction and blood-qi agitation. Self-cultivation’s first step requires actively stripping away these artificial contrivances obstructing the great Dao’s operation, dissolving the subject’s forceful desire to control the external world. This “elimination” actually creates internal space for the subject—the necessary prerequisite for emptying the mind. This work of “elimination” is continuous with the Laozi’s thought of “pursuing the Dao daily decreases, decreasing and further decreasing, until reaching non-action.” However, Yan Zun more clearly specifies the concrete objects to be “eliminated,” transforming Laozi’s relatively abstract “diminishment” into concrete self-cultivation practice.

After excluding “death’s comrades’” interference, self-cultivation enters the substantive construction stage—“collecting essence and storing spirit, embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness”. These eight characters constitute the core of Yan Zun’s self-cultivation theory. “Embodying harmony” means taking the qi of Supreme-Harmony as the substance and essence of life’s existence to recognize and nurture, ultimately achieving the internally stable state of “blood and qi harmonious and peaceful.” “Inheriting weakness” requires the cultivator, in both external behavior and internal thoughts, to consistently maintain a posture of non-contention, yielding, and Softness, taking Softness-Weakness as the behavioral principle for engaging with the world.

Laozi emphasizes the importance of “achieving Softness” and takes the infant as the ideal state. But how does one “achieve Softness”? Laozi does not provide concrete methods. Yan Zun’s “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness” can be viewed as an exposition of the cultivation theory for “concentrating qi to achieve Softness.” “Embodying harmony” corresponds to “concentrating qi”—making blood and qi harmonious and peaceful through recognizing Supreme-Harmony; “inheriting Weakness” corresponds to “achieving Softness”—reaching an infant-like state through maintaining the behavioral posture of Softness-Weakness. Through the combination of Harmony and Weakness, Yan Zun reveals the internal mechanism of “achieving Softness”: it is not simple Weakness but rather Weakness that “contains Harmony”; it is not passive Softness but rather a Softness-Weakness body actively constructed through “embodying Harmony”.

This combination of Harmony and Weakness constitutes a logical closed loop. As Yan Zun asserts in the Sheng Ye Rou Ruo Pian: “Now Shenming’s presence in humans: obtaining its proper place it cannot depart; losing its proper place it cannot persist… Softness-Weakness and harmonious compliance are the implements of long life and that wherein Shenming and yang-qi lodge. The myriad things follow yang through Harmony-Weakness” (夫神明之在人也，得其所不可去，失其所則不可存。……柔弱和順，長生之具而神明、陽氣之所讬也。萬物隨陽以和弱也) (Yan 2004, p. 325).

Shenming is free; it does not accept any “hard-strong” force’s compulsory confinement. It only submits to environmental attraction—“obtaining its proper place it cannot depart”. And this “proper place” is precisely the life-field of “Softness-Weakness and harmonious compliance” that practitioners create through “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness.” Harmony-Weakness here becomes elevated as “implements of long life”—the ultimate instrument for preserving life and entrusting Shenming and yang-qi.

When a cultivator perfects the work of “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness” to the utmost, what realm is achieved? In the Han De Zhi Hou Pian (含德之厚篇 Chapter on Containing De in Abundance), Yan Zun depicts this state: “Without resting Spirit, Spirit becomes settled of itself; without harmonizing qi, qi becomes peaceful of itself… Under tall trees the essence-spirit is preserved whole; in deep caverns the heart-mind is constantly joyful.” (不休神而神自定，不和氣而氣自平……喬木之下精神得全，嚴穴之中心意常歡) (Yan 2004, p. 159). This passage reveals the core characteristic of the highest realm of self-cultivation—without expectation, it comes of itself. In the highest realm, the cultivator no longer needs to deliberately “rest spirit” or “harmonize qi,” because “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness” has thoroughly restructured the life-body’s structure, becoming an unconscious instinct.

It is not difficult to see that the Harmony-Weakness concept in Yan Zun’s theory of self-cultivation is the practical unfolding of metaphysical ontology in the realm of self-cultivation. Compared to the Laozi, which primarily discusses Softness-Weakness from the levels of life-death contrast and empirical observation, Yan Zun, by introducing the theory of Shenming, constructing a cultivation theory of “substance-function mutual implication”, and depicting the realm theory of “without expectation, it comes of itself,” elevated self-cultivation practice from empirical wisdom to a systematic philosophy of life.

3.2. The Political Theory Dimension: Harmony-Weakness in Statecraft and Governance

If in the self-cultivation theory dimension Yan Zun established Harmony-Weakness as the primary factor for maintaining individual life-existence and preserving cosmic Shenming, then in the political philosophy dimension, he, based on the isomorphic logic that governing the state resembles governing the body, comprehensively extrapolated Harmony-Weakness as the supreme principle of state governance and the objective law of regime continuity. In Yan Zun’s view, the state’s order-disorder and rise-decline essentially constitute the macroscopic political manifestation of whether the yin-yang qi-mechanism between heaven and earth achieves Supreme-Harmony. The ruler, as the political organism’s central pivot, occupies a role equivalent to Shenming within individual life. Just as the individual’s physical form must retain Shenming through “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness” to seek longevity, the ruler must also actively dissolve forceful power in political practice, adopting the posture of “Harmony-Weakness and occupying the lower position” to accord with the heavenly Way, thereby settling the people’s hearts throughout all-under-heaven.

Investigating the logical starting point of Yan Zun’s political philosophy requires first examining the ruler’s core function as political power’s central pivot. In the Laozi zhigui, political power’s legitimacy and efficacy do not originate from coercive force or cunning intelligence but from the ruler’s simulation of the cosmos’s authentic state. In the Shang De Bu De Pian, Yan Zun provides detailed delineation of the ideal ruler: “The superior virtuous ruler… emotions and intentions embody Shenming, movements and actions conform to Supreme-Harmony” (上德之君，……情意體於神明，動作倫於太和 shang de zhi jun，…qing yi ti yu shen ming, dong zuo lun yu tai he). Previously, when discussing Yan Zun’s self-cultivation thought, we already clarified that Shenming’s essential nature is “tranquil stillness and Softness-Weakness,” while cosmic generation’s ultimate destination is Supreme-Harmony. Therefore, when the ruler governs the state, his internal political will must be isomorphic with Shenming—thoroughly abandoning personal selfish desires and control-desires, maintaining absolute emptiness and Softness-Weakness. His external administrative actions must take the supreme harmonious state before cosmic differentiation—Supreme-Harmony—as standard. This political practice of “conforming to Supreme-Harmony” inevitably manifests in the practical politics as an extremely restrained Harmony-Weakness posture7.

In the Tian Zhi Dao Pian, Yan Zun further theorizes this concept: “Therefore, when the sage acts, he takes namelessness as his task and Harmony-Weakness as his priority. Hidden yet not exhausted, glorified yet not manifest. Declining honor and yielding wealth, not taking surplus strength… Treading the Way and joining Harmony, constantly befriending things. Penetrating heaven’s warp and reaching earth’s principle, achieving accomplishments yet not dwelling in them, virtue flows yet not possessing it… Why is this so? Fearing the Dao’s calamity, not daring to manifest worthiness.” (是以，聖人之動，無名為務，和弱為主；隱而不窮，榮而不顯；辭貴讓富，餘力不取；……履道合和，常與物友；通天之經，達地之理，成功不居，德流不有；……夫何故哉?憚道之殃，不敢見賢也) (Yan 2004, pp. 336–37).

Here, Yan Zun constructs a political philosophy centered on Harmony-Weakness. The so-called “Harmony-Weakness as priority” requires that rulers, while grasping absolute power, actively perform power’s “suspension” and self-dissolution. This political “yielding” does not stem from Weakness but from profound insight into the heavenly Way’s operational patterns. Yan Zun considers that “name”, “power”, “honor”, “wealth”, and even “worthiness” in worldly politics all constitute manifestations of power’s expansion. Power’s excessive manifestation inevitably leads to political ecology’s tension and imbalance, provoking social opposition and resistance. Therefore, sage-kings governing states must proceed contrariwise, “taking namelessness as task and Harmony-Weakness as priority.” Through this thorough de-artificialization, the ruler transforms himself into “dark profundity” and “formlessness”, thereby, without interfering with myriad things’ self-generation and self-transformation, providing the entire state system with a broad, inclusive, and highly elastic political space.

Extending Harmony-Weakness’s logic from the ruler’s internal cultivation toward inter-state geopolitics and military competition, Yan Zun displays his profound political dialectics. In pre-Qin through early Han practical politics, lords’ mutual invasions and the strong oppressing the weak constituted universal historical experience. Nevertheless, Yan Zun, from ontological heights, thoroughly subverted worldly concepts of “strong state” and “weak state”, “strong armies” and “weak armies”. In the Sheng Ye Rou Ruo Pian, he incisively points out: “Therefore, when there is no Son of Heaven above and lords mutually invade, enemy states contend for power, raising armies to confront each other—the soft-weak prevail, the hard-strong become exhausted.” (是故，上無天子，諸侯相侵，敵國爭權，舉兵相臨，柔弱者勝，堅強者窮) (Yan 2004, p. 327).

Why in cruel military conflicts does “the soft-weak prevail and the hard-strong become exhausted”? Yan Zun provides deep revelation from two levels: warfare’s motivation and the heavenly Way’s orientation. He demonstrates:

“Powerful armies do not accord with heaven and earth, take Harmony-Weakness as foundation, prioritize compassionate love, punish the arrogant and violent, rescue the insufficient, or break greedy rapacity. Rather, relying on the state’s power and the people’s multitude… profiting from people’s territory, desiring people’s wealth and goods, delighting in killing and being comfortable with injury, leveling people’s ancestral temples, destroying people’s altars of soil and grain, to manifest their awesome importance… The multitude of weak unite as one, sharing concerns and jointly planning—though possessing a strong name, they actually cannot prevail. Why is this so? Poison flows and death knots—the heavenly Way does not assist.” (強大之兵非以順天地、本和弱、主慈愛、誅驕暴、救不足、破貪叨也，將恃國家之勢、民人之眾，……利人壤土，欲人財貨，樂殺安傷，夷人宗廟，喪人社稷，以顯其威重。……眾弱為一，同憂共謀，雖有強名，實不得勝。夫何故哉?毒流死結，天道不佑也).

(Yan 2004, p. 327)

Chapter 69 of the Laozi discusses military affairs: “In the use of troops, there is a saying: ‘I dare not act as host but rather as guest; I dare not advance an inch but rather retreat a foot.’… Therefore, when matched armies clash, the one who grieves prevails.” (用兵有言：吾不敢為主而為客，不敢進寸而退尺。……故抗兵相加，哀者勝矣) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 173) Laozi emphasizes “not daring to act as host but rather as guest” and “the one who grieves prevails”, advocating a defensive posture and compassionate heart in warfare. But why does “the one who grieves” prevail? Laozi does not provide in-depth argumentation. Yan Zun, however, reveals the underlying mechanism.

In Yan Zun’s view, worldly “powerful armies’” essence constitutes rulers’ violent overdraft of state potential to satisfy greed and vanity. This military expansion established upon “profiting from people’s territory” and “delighting in killing and being comfortable with injury” fundamentally deviates from the cosmic generative virtue of “taking Harmony-Weakness as foundation and prioritizing compassionate love.” Because their actions constitute severe destruction of natural order, they inevitably suffer the heavenly Way’s retribution and myriad things’ collective attack. Conversely, those in disadvantaged positions, because they accord with Harmony-Weakness’s ontological attributes, can concentrate the vital potential of “sharing concerns and jointly planning”, ultimately prevailing over seemingly powerful aggressors under the heavenly Way’s protection.

Therefore, in the Yong Bing Pian (用兵篇 Chapter of Military Engagement), Yan Zun proposes his distinctive military philosophy: “Dao has nothing it does not possess, possessing yet not acting. Embodying Harmony and submitting to Weakness, encompassing great awesomeness, generating and nurturing the multitude of categories—none can violate it. Having no form or image, it serves as teacher to the myriad things.” (道無不有，有無不為，體和服弱，括囊大威，生育群類，莫有能違，無有形象，為萬物師) (Yan 2004, p. 267). A state’s true deterrent power is absolutely not external strong armor and sharp weapons or severe punishments and harsh laws, but deeply enveloped beneath the appearance of “embodying Harmony and submitting to Weakness”. When a state can, like Dao, with formless, imageless Softness-Weakness posture accommodate myriad things and generate the multitude of categories, it obtains unshakeable political potential. This “submitting to Weakness” not only dissolves enemy states’ attack pretexts but also establishes absolute superiority for subduing others without warfare at moral and ontological levels.

Based on these dialectics, in the Da Guo Pian 大國篇, Yan Zun depicts an ideal diplomatic and governance landscape for “great state” rulers:

“Therefore, when enlightened kings and sage lords occupy great states, they bestow yet do not thereby establish control, descend yet do not thereby demand. Their territory encompasses the lords’ states yet there is nothing they do not fear; their virtue encompasses the lords’ strength yet there is nothing they do not attend to… Receiving yet not taking, bestowing yet not granting—soft-weak, simple, and easy, dwelling through non-action. Even if lords are greedy, base, cruel and rapacious, arrogant and proud, relying on strength, disliking compliance, desiring to plot rebellion, still through the power of civil and military affairs and the importance of awesome virtue, they calm themselves and descend to them, whereupon those others cultivate themselves and act cautiously, reform their wrongs and renew themselves, ceding territory and presenting treasures” (是故，明王聖主之處大國也，施而不以置，下而不以求，地裹諸侯之國而無所不畏，德包諸侯之力而無所不事；……受而不取，授而不予，柔弱簡易，無為而處；諸侯雖有貪鄙殘賊、驕矜恃力、不好順從、欲圖逆者，猶以文武之勢、威德之重靜而下之，則彼修身慎行，改過自新，割地獻寶).

(Yan 2004, pp. 209–10)

Yan Zun indicates that great states’ greatness lies not in territorial expanse or martial prowess but in their rulers’ ability to “humble themselves and descend to them”, treating all-under-heaven with a “soft-weak, simple, and easy” posture. Even when facing rebels who are “greedy, base, cruel and rapacious, arrogant and proud, relying on strength”, sage-kings can still “through the power of civil and military affairs and the importance of awesome virtue, calm themselves and descend to them.” This political resolve of “calming themselves and descending to them” constitutes the Harmony-Weakness philosophy’s ultimate embodiment. Through absolute inclusiveness and yielding, it dissolves tensions within the political system, causing hostile forces under the influence of “awesome virtue” to “reform their wrongs and renew themselves, cede territory and present treasures.” Here Harmony-Weakness no longer serves as the weak’s helpless measure but as the strong’s optimal political strategy and supreme political wisdom for governing all-under-heaven and achieving enduring peace and stability.

Highly noteworthy is that Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness political philosophy does not merely remain at metaphysical logical extrapolation or utopian moral expectations; it possesses extremely strong practical relevance and historical empirical grounding. As a philosopher who experienced Western Han mid-to-late period political turbulence, Yan Zun keenly positioned the Harmony-Weakness perspective within a grand historical-philosophical vision. Through a comparative analysis of Qin-Chu’s destruction and Han’s rise, he demonstrated Harmony-Weakness’s absolute necessity as an objective political survival law.

In the Sheng Ye Rou Ruo Pian, Yan Zun conducts ontological reflection on the great transformation of the Qin-Han transition. He indicates:

“Formerly, powerful Qin and great Chu destroyed the lords, merged commanderies and towns, richly possessed states and families, were honored as Sons of Heaven. Their power dominated all-under-heaven, their awesome might shook the four seas, their reverence and honor reached the extreme—they could be called strong! Yet folding their arms, the lords worried; raising their feet, all-under-heaven feared; undertaking affairs, Shenming became disturbed. Then states were destroyed and families shattered, bodies divided into fragments. Why is this so? Because they abandoned Harmony-Weakness and became hard-strong” (昔強秦大楚，滅諸侯，併郡邑，富有國家，貴為天子，權傾天下，威震四海，尊崇窮極，可謂強矣!垂拱而諸侯憂，蹺足而天下恐，舉事而神明擾:亡國破家，身分為數。夫何故哉?去和弱而為剛強也).

(Yan 2004, p. 328)

The Qin dynasty and Chu state undoubtedly reached that historical era’s apex in military and state apparatus construction, exhausting “hard-strong’s” capabilities. However, this “strength” was established upon severe punishments—harsh laws and militaristic aggression. In Yan Zun’s view, this precisely constitutes the fatal catalyst for the political body proceeding toward ossification and collapse. Qin-Chu’s destruction was not accidental military miscalculation but because they fundamentally abandoned Harmony-Weakness’s ontological attributes, proceeding toward extreme artificial contrivance and violent oppression. This political practice of “abandoning Harmony-Weakness” inevitably leads to rupture of the state’s internal qi-transformation system and extreme intensification of social contradictions, ultimately inevitably proceeding toward “states destroyed and families shattered”.

Forming sharp contrast with Qin-Chu’s destruction is Han’s rise. Yan Zun writes: “When divine Han was about to arise, the myriad people sought it and thus could not avoid it. With heaven as father and earth as mother, loving the people like children. Rewarding achievement and nurturing goodness, modeling themselves on heaven’s scholars… All-under-heaven joyful and delighted, establishing them as Son of Heaven. Why is this so? Following with heaven’s heart and practicing compassionate smallness” (及至神漢將興，萬民求之遂不得免。父天母地，愛民如子；賞功養善，師於天士；……天下欣欣，立為天子。夫何故哉?順天之心而為慈小也) (Yan 2004, pp. 328–29).

Early Han rulers, especially the Wen-Jing 文景 period dominated by Huang-Lao learning 黄老學, adopted policies of resting with the people and light corvée and low taxes. These policies, in Yan Zun’s philosophical context, precisely constitute concrete embodiment of “according with heaven’s heart” and “practicing compassionate smallness.” “Compassionate smallness” constitutes Harmony-Weakness’s expression in political emotion and administrative methods. Han’s rise demonstrates that only by according with the natural principle, maintaining the political body’s Softness-Weakness and inclusiveness, can one obtain all-under-heaven people’s allegiance and the heavenly way’s protection.

Although the Laozi also criticizes “the aggressive and violent do not meet their natural end” (強梁者不得其死 qiang liang zhe bu de qi si) (Bi Wang 2008, p. 118), this is primarily a principled declaration lacking concrete historical case support. Yan Zun, through the contrast between the Qin and Chu states’ collapse and the Han dynasty’s rise, transforms abstract philosophical principles into verifiable historical patterns. “Abandoning Harmony-Weakness and pursuing hard-strong” leads to “states were destroyed and families shattered”; “following heaven’s heart and being compassionate toward the small” brings “all under heaven rejoicing”—this is not moral preaching but rather a theoretical summary of historical experience. From abstract principles to historical verification, Yan Zun transforms Harmony-Weakness from a philosophical concept into a verifiable objective pattern.

Through this one positive and one negative historical empirical demonstration, in the Dao Sheng Yi Pian Yan Zun distills a universally applicable historical rise-decline criterion: “The strong depart from Dao, the arrogant expel spirit—life’s master thereby retreats. How can they endure long?” (強者離道，梁者去神，生主以退，安得長存? qiang zhe li dao, liang zhe qu shen, sheng zhu yi tui, an de chang cun) (Yan 2004, p. 57). Any regime venerating tyranny and believing in violence essentially departs from the cosmos’s great Dao, expelling the internal spirit maintaining the political body’s vital force. When politics’ “life’s master” (Harmony-Weakness qi) retreats and disperses, the regime’s destruction becomes merely a matter of time.

It is evident that the Harmony-Weakness thought in Yan Zun’s Laozi zhigui penetrates the internal logic from self-cultivation to statecraft, constructing a theoretical system of highly unified life-ontology and political philosophy. In the self-cultivation dimension, Harmony-Weakness becomes established as the transcendental ontological condition for preserving cosmic Shenming and maintaining life’s qi-transformation existence, aiming through the non-action practice of “unharmonized harmony” to dissolve physical form and mentality’s hardness-strength, realizing life’s preservation and great pervasiveness. In the statecraft dimension, based on the isomorphism of governing the state resembles governing the body, Yan Zun extrapolates Harmony-Weakness as the supreme law whereby rulers accord with Supreme-Harmony and govern all-under-heaven. He rejects severe punishments—harsh laws and militaristic aggression’s “hard-strong” measures, advocating dissolving political system tensions through “compassionate smallness” and “soft-weak simplicity-ease.” Through historical-philosophical reflection on Qin-Chu’s destruction and Han’s rise, Yan Zun profoundly reveals that Harmony-Weakness is absolutely not a negative-retreating ethical posture but the objective law determining individual life-death and regime survival-destruction.

Compared to the Laozi, which primarily discusses the role of Softness-Weakness in politics from empirical and strategic levels, Yan Zun, through three dimensions—ontological grounding, theoretical articulation, and historical verification—elevates political Softness-Weakness from practical wisdom to a systematic political philosophy theory.

4. The Theoretical Reconstruction from Softness-Weakness to Harmony-Weakness and Its Intellectual-Historical Significance

Through the preceding systematic analysis of Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness thought across the three dimensions of cosmology, self-cultivation theory, and political philosophy, we have clearly witnessed Yan Zun’s creative transformation of the Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought. Is this transformation merely a simple interpretation of Laozi’s thought, or does it constitute a more profound theoretical reformation? How should we understand the significance of this transformation in the developmental history of Daoist thought? How does Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept respond to the theoretical tensions in the Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought, and how does it embody the characteristics of Han dynasty Confucian-Daoist synthesis? This chapter will provide a comprehensive theoretical analysis of the intellectual-historical significance of Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept from two perspectives: the nature of theoretical reconstruction and the mechanism of Confucian-Daoist synthesis.

4.1. Three Dimensions of Yan Zun’s Theoretical Reconstruction of Laozi’s Soft-Weakness Thought

Yan Zun’s incorporation of Harmony into his interpretation of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought does not constitute simple inheritance but rather theoretical reconstruction. This reconstruction manifests in three aspects.

Yan Zun’s interpretation of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought constitutes a genuine “theoretical reconstruction” rather than mere interpretation or development. “Theoretical reconstruction” refers to systematically reconfiguring the conceptual framework of an existing theory by introducing new foundational categories, establishing new conceptual relationships, and redefining the theoretical status of concepts. Specifically, Yan Zun, by introducing Supreme-Harmony as a new ontological category and establishing the substance-function structure of “Harmony is its destination, Weakness is its function”, elevated Softness-Weakness from Laozi’s practical wisdom and survival strategy to an ontological principle of cosmic generation, thereby achieving a fundamental reconstruction of the conceptual system. This reconstruction manifests in three main dimensions: transcending binary oppositions, endowing value orientations, and systematization and theorization.

First, Harmony enables Softness-Weakness to transcend simple binary opposition, achieving a transformation from dualistic opposition to harmonious unity. The Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought already contains profound insight, but its mode of exposition primarily unfolds through opposition to hardness-strength. Expressions such as “the hard and strong are companions of death, the soft and weak are companions of life” and “Weakness overcomes strength, Softness overcomes hardness” all embody an either-or oppositional thinking. Although this thinking possesses strong critical force, it can easily lead toward a certain one-sidedness of either-or. If the value of Softness-Weakness must be established through negating hardness-strength, does this mean that the ideal state is to completely abandon hardness-strength? Yet the Laozi itself also contains the discourse of “Softness-Weakness overcomes hardness-strength,” where “overcomes” clearly presupposes the existence of hardness-strength8. This produces a theoretical question: is the relationship between Softness-Weakness and hardness-strength one of absolute opposition and either-or, or can they achieve unity at some higher level? The Laozi text leaves open interpretive space for this question. Moreover, because the Laozi emphasizes “Softness-Weakness overcomes hardness-strength,” this thought has historically been easily interpreted as a kind of strategic scheming. Han Feizi cited the stories of Duke Xian of Jin’s attack on Yu and Zhi Bo’s attack on Chouyu to explain “if you wish to take, you must first give”, inaugurating the interpretation of Softness-Weakness as political cunning9. Although this interpretive path grasps the aspect of Softness-Weakness as a means, it easily reduces it to pure utilitarian calculation10, neglecting its deeper ontological and axiological implications.

Through the introduction of Harmony, Yan Zun elevates this oppositional discourse to a unity regulated by a higher-order principle. The function of Harmony is not to eliminate either hardness or Softness but rather to enable both to attain their appropriate positions and complement each other. “Hard without breaking” means maintaining appropriate hardness without fracturing; “soft without curling” means maintaining appropriate softness without coiling. This is a dynamic balance rather than static opposition. More importantly, the expression “things through Softness-Weakness, qi through hardness-strength” reveals a profound philosophical insight: under Harmony’s governance, Softness-Weakness and hardness-strength can coexist complementarily at different levels. The material level features Softness-Weakness characteristics; the vital-qi level features hardness-strength characteristics. These do not mutually exclude but mutually coordinate, jointly constituting complete existence. This unified thinking transcends the Laozi’s oppositional model, enabling Daoist philosophy to reach a new theoretical height.

Behind this transformation lies the Han dynasty’s need for intellectual synthesis. Under the grand unification political structure, what rulers needed was not merely the wisdom to critique “strength” but also the capacity to harmonize contradictions and integrate society. Through the introduction of Harmony, Yan Zun enabled Daoist Softness-Weakness thought to acquire stronger social integrative function while maintaining its core spirit of critiquing “strength”.

Second, Harmony endows Softness-Weakness with clear value orientations and ontological foundation, achieving a transformation from passive defense to active construction. The Laozi emphasizes “Weakness is the function of the Dao”, defining Softness-Weakness as the Dao’s mode of operation—this in itself already constitutes high affirmation of Softness-Weakness. However, its mode of expression easily gives a passive impression, as principles such as “non-action”, “not-knowing”, “occupying the lower position” and “stillness” are all negative. Graham once pointed out: “in instructing the weak in the strategy of survival, Lao-tzu regularly advises him to prefer passive to active.” (Graham 1989, p. 230). Moreover, Laozi mentions “returning to the infinite” and “returning to simplicity” also emphasizing return to the primordial state. This “returning” presents itself more as a negative movement—eliminating, returning, regressing—while less positively articulating what ideal state is to be achieved. “Infinite” and “simplicity” are themselves highly abstract concepts; are they sufficiently clear and positive as value orientations?

Through the ontological stipulation of “harmony is its destination”, Yan Zun provides Softness-Weakness with clear value orientations. Softness-Weakness is no longer the end itself but rather the path to achieving Harmony, this ideal state. At the cosmological level, Supreme-Harmony “encompasses heaven and earth, contains yin and yang”, serving as a positive force maintaining cosmic order. At the self-cultivation level, “spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful” is the positive realm pursued in life cultivation. At the political level, “harmonious compliance brings flourishing” is the positive path to state prosperity. All these indicate that Harmony is a constructive value ideal. Consequently, Softness-Weakness, as the path to realizing Harmony, acquires positive significance. “Embodying Harmony and inheriting weakness” is not passively maintaining Weakness but rather pursuing the realm of Harmony and peace. “Taking Harmony-Weakness as primary” is not inaction but rather active governance that “penetrates heaven’s patterns and comprehends earth’s principles.” “Rooting in Harmony-Weakness” is not avoiding warfare but rather restoring peace and aiding the weak. Through the introduction of Harmony, Yan Zun transforms Softness-Weakness from passive defense to active construction, making Daoist thought more realistic and operational.

From “returning to simplicity” to “returning to Supreme-Harmony”—this represents a shift from negative regression to positive construction. For Yan Zun, although cosmic evolution begins from “emptiness”, its purpose is not merely to return to lifeless void but rather to achieve a ceaselessly generating, vibrant harmonious state—Supreme-Harmony. Behind this transformation likewise lies the real needs of Han dynasty grand unification politics. Under a relatively stable political structure, what rulers needed was not merely the passive principle of non-action but also the positive ideal of Harmony to integrate pluralistic society and coordinate different interests.

Third, Harmony enables the systematization and theorization of Softness-Weakness thought, achieving a transformation from scattered discussions to a complete system. The Laozi’s discussions of Softness-Weakness are dispersed across different chapters, involving multiple levels including cosmic generation, the essence of life, political governance, and worldly wisdom. Although these discussions all point toward the core concept of Softness-Weakness, the internal connections among them are not entirely clear. What is the relationship between Softness-Weakness at the cosmological level and Softness-Weakness at the political level? How does “maintaining Softness” in self-cultivation theory connect with “Weakness is the function of the Dao” in cosmogonic theory? The Laozi provides rich intellectual resources but lacks a clear theoretical framework to systematically integrate these discussions.

Through the concept of Harmony-Weakness, Yan Zun constructed a complete theoretical system integrating cosmology, self-cultivation theory, and political philosophy. At the cosmological level, “Harmony is its destination, Weakness is its function” clarifies the Dao’s two fundamental attributes and their relationship; “containing Harmony in Softness-Weakness while the Dao remains formless” reveals the principle of the myriad things’ generation; Supreme-Harmony, as the concrete manifestation of the Dao, becomes the pivot connecting the metaphysical and the phenomenal. At the self-cultivation level, the theory of “thirteen companions of life” provides a complete system of virtues; “in movement reverting to Softness-Weakness, in stillness returning to Harmony and peace” provides clear cultivation guidance; “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness” transforms abstract principles into embodied practice. At the political level, “taking Harmony-Weakness as primary” is the governing principle; “rooting in Harmony-Weakness” is the ethics of warfare; “harmonious compliance brings flourishing” is historical experience. More importantly, through the concept of Supreme-Harmony, Yan Zun integrates these three dimensions, and all point toward the same ideal of Harmony. Thus, from cosmic generation to personal cultivation, from social governance to historical evolution, Harmony-Weakness plays a central role, forming an organically unified thought system.

This systematization effort transforms Softness-Weakness from scattered worldly wisdom into a philosophical category with a clear ontological foundation (Supreme-Harmony as progenitor), lucid logical structure (substance-function mutual implication), and complete theoretical system (integrating three dimensions). Compared to the Laozi’s relatively scattered discussions, Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept displays evident systematicity and theoretical rigor. This systematization itself also reflects the characteristics of Han dynasty scholarship—constructing complete theoretical systems to respond to complex social realities.

4.2. The Intellectual-Historical Significance of Harmony-Weakness

From an intellectual-historical perspective, the conceptual transformation from Softness-Weakness to Harmony-Weakness represents both Yan Zun’s individual theoretical innovation and an inevitable result of Daoist thought’s development in the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty was a crucial period of Confucian-Daoist synthesis in Chinese intellectual history11. The Confucian emphasis on “centrality and Harmony” (中和 zhonghe), the Daoist cosmological focus on Harmony, and the integrative needs of grand unification politics—these three forces jointly operated to make Harmony one of the most important intellectual categories of the Han dynasty. However, Confucian-Daoist synthesis was not simply conceptual patchwork or mechanical superposition. Yan Zun’s proposal of the Harmony-Weakness concept provides us with a paradigmatic case, revealing the deep mechanism of Confucian-Daoist synthesis and the important significance of this synthesis for the development of Daoist thought12. The key question is: how does Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness embody Confucian-Daoist synthesis? What is the internal mechanism of this synthesis?

Various models of Confucian-Daoist synthesis existed in Han dynasty intellectual history. Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒, basing himself on Confucian thought, absorbed Huang-Lao Daoist thought, Legalist thought, and Yin-Yang school thought. The most typical characteristic of his thought was introducing the Yin-Yang school’s “yin-yang and five phases” (陰陽五行 yin yang wu xing) theory into the Confucian political-ethical framework, thereby providing Confucianism’s ethical-political program with a systematic cosmological schema as foundation (Z. Li 1999, p. 150). However, this synthesis was more instrumental—using the Yin-Yang school’s and Daoism’s cosmology to provide metaphysical grounding for Confucian political propositions, primarily serving Confucian ethical-political objectives. If Dong Zhongshu represents Confucian-Daoist synthesis from a Confucian perspective, then Huang-Lao learning, particularly its culminating work, the Huainanzi 淮南子, demonstrates how the Daoist standpoint actively absorbed and harmonized Confucian and various other schools’ thought to adapt to the new political structure. However, the Huainanzi’s situation is rather complex; it “did not carry the Daoist standpoint through to the end but rather vacillated between Confucianism and Daoism”, and its entire chapter structure gives the impression of “beginning with Daoism and ending with Confucianism” (J. Chen 2004, p. 157). The common characteristic of these synthetic models is external superposition or juxtaposition; the combination is primarily manifested at the level of political practice, presenting itself as the parallel compatibility of two values, not yet achieving deep integration at the ontological level.

Yan Zun’s proposal of the Harmony-Weakness concept represents a more profound mode of synthesis—internal unity rather than external superposition. He does not simply juxtapose Confucian Harmony with Daoist Weakness in parallel use but rather reveals their internal connection. Through “containing Harmony in Softness-Weakness”, Yan Zun indicates that Harmony is not external to Softness-Weakness but rather inheres within it. Through “Harmony is its destination, Weakness is its function”, he reveals their substance-function relationship. This synthesis is not a mechanical combination of two heterogeneous elements but rather reveals their originally existing internal unity—Harmony and Weakness are two aspects of an organic whole.

This synthetic model possesses two salient features. First, it maintains the core spirit of Daoism while simultaneously absorbing Confucian value concerns. Yan Zun’s synthesis neither uses Confucianism to transform Daoism nor uses Daoism to dissolve Confucianism, but rather achieves their unity at a higher level. From the Daoist perspective, Yan Zun completely preserves the central status of Softness-Weakness—“Weakness is its function” clearly inherits the Laozi’s thought that “Weakness is the function of the Dao”; the cultivation theory of “embodying Harmony and inheriting Weakness” takes Weakness as fundamental; politically, “taking Harmony-Weakness as primary” still emphasizes the priority of Weakness. The critical spirit, transcendence, and de-artificialization of Daoist Soft-Weakness thought are all completely preserved in Yan Zun. From the Confucian perspective, by introducing Harmony, Yan Zun infused Daoist thought with more positive value content. The Confucian Harmony concept’s emphasis on Harmony, centrality, and ceaseless generation is embodied in Yan Zun’s concepts such as Supreme-Harmony, “spirit-qi harmonious and peaceful”, and “harmonious compliance brings flourishing”. Second, it creates a new theoretical paradigm rather than simply seeking compromise between two existing systems. As a compound concept, Harmony-Weakness is equivalent neither to Confucian “centrality and Harmony” nor to Daoist Softness-Weakness. It is a new theoretical paradigm with its own unique conceptual structure, ontological foundation, value orientations, and practical pathway. This is not seeking a middle ground between Confucian zhonghe and Daoist Softness-Weakness but rather creating a new theoretical paradigm that transcends both. Yan Zun was able to successfully synthesize Harmony and Weakness because he keenly discovered the mutually dependent internal connection between them, rather than subjectively forcing two concepts together.

The success of Yan Zun’s synthetic model reveals an important mechanism of Chinese philosophical thought synthesis: truly profound synthesis is not simple conceptual superposition or mechanical theoretical patchwork but rather is based on deep insight into the internal connections between two thought traditions. In fact, Softness-Weakness itself contains the possibility of Harmony. As previously noted, Laozi’s statement “the myriad things carry yin and embrace yang, blending their qi to achieve Harmony” very likely already hints at the internal connection between Softness-Weakness and Harmony. The reason Softness-Weakness can “overcome hardness-strength” is not because it possesses some kind of violent coercive force but rather because it can dissolve opposition and melt away conflict, ultimately achieving a harmonious state. Yan Zun keenly grasped this point and made this implicit possibility explicit and ontological, revealing that the generative power of Softness-Weakness derives from its inherent Harmony. This also means that the realization of Harmony must proceed through the pathway of Weakness. At the political level, this insight is especially profound. Historical experience demonstrates that pure forceful rule leads to rapid demise, while the way of Harmony-Weakness can bring lasting peace and stability. This also confirms from another perspective the internal connection of Confucian-Daoist synthesis.

It is not difficult to see that the conceptual transformation from Softness-Weakness to Harmony-Weakness, seemingly simple, actually contains profound intellectual-historical implications. It both reflects the characteristics of Han dynasty intellectual synthesis and demonstrates the internal dynamic of Daoist thought’s self-renewal; it is both a creative interpretation of pre-Qin Daoist classics and a theoretical response to Han dynasty political realities. From the pre-Qin Laozi and Zhuangzi, through the Han dynasty’s Huang-Lao learning and Huainanzi, to the Wei-Jin Xuanxue 魏晉玄學 and Sui-Tang Chongxuan learning 隋唐重玄學, each important theoretical transformation of Daoist thought was not a simple negation or abandonment of the previous stage’s thought but rather, under new historical conditions, through absorbing other intellectual resources while maintaining the core Daoist spirit, achieved creative self-renewal. Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept is a typical embodiment of this evolutionary mechanism; it successfully integrated Daoist Softness-Weakness thought with the Confucian Harmony concept, maintaining both Daoist critical spirit and transcendence while infusing Daoist thought with positive constructiveness and practicality.

This synthesis not only enriched the content of Daoist thought but also provides us with a concrete and in-depth case for understanding how Chinese philosophy undergoes self-adjustment and creative transformation in different historical periods and different intellectual contexts. As is well known, the development of Chinese philosophy often does not occur through one school completely replacing another, nor through intense theoretical confrontation to achieve paradigm shifts, but rather through creative synthesis among different thought traditions. The success of such synthesis depends on whether thinkers can find the internal points of compatibility between different traditions and whether they can achieve higher-level theoretical synthesis while maintaining their respective core spirits. This evolutionary mechanism also has important implications for our thinking about the modern transformation of traditional thought. In the contemporary context of globalization, how can Chinese philosophy both maintain its own distinctive characteristics and advantages while effectively dialoguing with modern thought to achieve creative transformation? Yan Zun’s experience tells us: the key lies in finding the internal points of compatibility between traditional thought and modern needs, and through creative theoretical synthesis while adhering to core values, enabling traditional thought to radiate new vitality.

5. Conclusions

Through a systematic examination of the Harmony-Weakness concept in Yan Zun’s Laozi zhigui, this paper has revealed the theoretical nature, internal mechanism, and intellectual-historical significance of the conceptual transformation from Softness-Weakness to Harmony-Weakness. The core contribution of this study lies not only in filling the gap in research on Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept but also in providing a concrete and in-depth case for understanding the evolutionary mechanism of Chinese philosophy.

From the perspective of theoretical nature, Yan Zun’s treatment of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought constitutes a genuine “theoretical reconstruction”. At the cosmological level, through the substantialization of Supreme-Harmony and teleological stipulation, he provided Softness-Weakness with an ontological foundation and value orientations. At the levels of self-cultivation theory and political philosophy, he elevated empirical observations and practical wisdom to systematic theoretical principles. From the perspective of intellectual-historical mechanism, the formation of Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept reveals the deep logic of Confucian-Daoist synthesis. This synthesis is not simple conceptual superposition or mechanical theoretical patchwork but rather is based on deep insight into the internal connections between two thought traditions. While maintaining the core spirit of both sides, it achieved their unity at a higher level and created a new theoretical paradigm. From a methodological perspective, this study demonstrates the important value of conceptual history research. By tracing the transformation process of a core concept, we can not only grasp a thinker’s theoretical innovations but also understand the intellectual needs of their era, the interactive mechanisms of different thought traditions, and the internal logic of philosophical theoretical evolution.

However, Yan Zun’s Harmony-Weakness concept also exhibits certain theoretical tensions and historical limitations. The powerful intellectual force of Laozi’s Softness-Weakness thought lies largely in its radical subversion of conventional values. When Yan Zun defines Softness-Weakness as the pathway toward Supreme-Harmony, this substance-function structure, while providing Softness-Weakness with a clear teleological dimension, may also weaken the critical value of Softness-Weakness itself. We believe that genuine Harmony-Weakness should not treat Harmony as an external ultimate goal but rather should understand Harmony as an intrinsic attribute of Softness-Weakness. In fact, Yan Zun’s “containing harmony in Softness-Weakness” already touches upon this insight. However, through “harmony is its destination”, he externalizes Harmony as a goal, producing a certain theoretical tension. Furthermore, the value of Softness-Weakness lies precisely in its refusal to be stipulated by any determinate goal. Once Harmony is established as the ultimate goal, Softness-Weakness risks being instrumentalized as a means to achieve “harmonious society”, thereby losing its critical power against existing order. In this sense, we need to return to Softness-Weakness itself, understanding Harmony as inherent to Softness-Weakness rather than as its external goal. Genuine Softness-Weakness should maintain its critical spirit and transcendence. It is not for achieving some predetermined Harmony but rather, through continuous de-artificialization and de-forcification, allowing things to return to their natural state. This kind of Harmony is not constructed but rather naturally manifests.

Moreover, when Yan Zun attributes the Qin and Chu states’ collapse to “abandoning Harmony-Weakness and pursuing hardness-strength” and the Han dynasty’s rise to “harmonious compliance”, the extent to which this historical narrative accurately grasps historical reality versus serving as theoretical construction for contemporary politics deserves our reflection. In fact, Yan Zun’s criticism of warfare primarily targeted Emperor Wu of Han 漢武帝. Living in the relatively peaceful late Western Han period and residing in remote regions far from the political center, he could hardly understand the historical circumstances and geopolitical situation of Emperor Wu’s era (Na 1992, pp. 163–71). These tensions should not be viewed as theoretical defects but rather should be understood as the theoretical dilemmas that profound philosophical thought necessarily faces. It is precisely these tensions that make Yan Zun’s thought an intellectual resource worthy of continued reflection and dialogue.

In sum, Yan Zun’s proposal of the Harmony-Weakness concept marks an important theoretical transformation of Daoist thought in the Han dynasty. This transformation not only enriched Daoist theoretical content but also provides important theoretical resources and methodological insights for understanding the evolutionary mechanism of Chinese philosophy, the internal logic of intellectual synthesis, and the modern transformation of traditional thought.