The Will of Heaven, Heaven’s Timing, and the Timely Mean: The Tripartite Conceptual Framework of Temporal Ethics in the Yizhuan

Abstract

The Yizhuan constructs a temporal ethics centered on “time” (shi 時), bridging the Will of Heaven and human affairs. This ethical paradigm is primarily manifested in the tripartite conceptual framework: First, as the transcendent source of temporal ethics, “The Will of Heaven” (tianming 天命) endows the ever-changing processes of cosmic existence with a moral teleological dimension. Secondly, “Heaven’s Timing” (tianshi 天時) manifests as the Will of Heaven within specific time and spatial contexts, guiding actors to discern the operational principles of fortune and opportunity. Finally, “the Timely Mean” (shizhong 時中), as the fundamental principle of practical life, refers to the practice of acting in harmony with the times, based on the agent’s insight into the Will of Heaven and grasp of Heaven’s Timing. Its essence lies in adapting to the times to achieve the supreme realm of morality, as outlined in the Way of the Mean (zhongdao 中道). The core purpose of the temporal ethics in the Yizhuan is to emphasize understanding moral practice within the dimension of time, opposing the abstract application of moral principles divorced from specific contexts. It requires the agent to make choices aligned with the Will of Heaven at the appropriate moment, cultivating moral character and addressing complex practical matters within the flow of time.

1. Introduction

The commonly circulated version of Zhouyi 周易 consists of two parts: the Yijing 易經 (the ancient classic) and the Yizhuan 易傳 (the interpretation of the ancient Classic). The Yijing was formed in the early Western Zhou Dynasty. According to legend, Fuxi 伏羲 drew the eight trigrams, and King Wen of Zhou 周文王 expanded them into the sixty-four hexagrams and composed the hexagram (gua 卦) and line (yao 爻) statements. This reflects the traditional attribution of significant cultural creations to sage-kings. Modern research suggests that this work was collectively compiled, edited, and refined by the royal divination officials of the early Western Zhou Dynasty, based on long-term records of divination practices. The Yizhuan is a philosophical elaboration of the Yijing by Confucian scholars from the Warring States period (475BC–221BC) to the Han Dynasty. It includes ten chapters, such as the Tuanzhuan 彖傳, Xiangzhuan 象傳, Xicizhuan 繫辭傳, Wenyanzhuan 文言傳, Shuoguazhuan 說卦傳, Xuguazhuan 序卦傳, and Zaguazhuan 雜卦傳, collectively known as the “Ten Wings,” (shiyi 十翼) meaning “wings” that assist in understanding the classic. Traditionally, the Yizhuan was attributed to Confucius, but modern academic consensus holds that it was not the work of a single author or a single period. The main parts (such as the Tuanzhuan, Xiangzhuan, and Xicizhuan) were formed during the mid-to-late Warring States period, as Confucian scholars, building upon Confucius’s interpretations of the Yijing, integrated ideas from Daoist, Yin-Yang 陰-陽, and other schools of thought. The final compilation and the addition of certain chapters (such as the Shuoguazhuan, Xuguazhuan, and Zaguazhuan) may have extended into the early Western Han Dynasty.

The Yizhuan is not merely a commentary on the Yijing but a great philosophical creation in its own right. It transforms the mysterious system of hexagrams and line symbols into a grand intellectual framework that explores the origin of the universe, the laws of all things, social ethics, and the value of human life. In other words, the metaphysical and ethical elements in the Yizhuan represent Confucian scholars’ interpretations of more ancient divinatory texts. Through this creative interpretive process, they transformed the predictive judgments of divination into a moral philosophy centered on the correspondence between Heaven and Humanity, thereby integrating natural laws with social norms and elevating divination into a discipline of self-cultivation.

The Yizhuan demonstrates a profound understanding of the phenomenon of time in the cosmos and human life. The single character “time” (shi 時) appears 58 times in the Yizhuan, yet its expression extends far beyond this individual character. It is more prominently conveyed through a series of fixed categories and propositions, such as “the Timely Mean” (shizhong 時中), “Heaven’s Timing” (tianshi 天时), and “advancing in harmony with the time” (yushixiexing 与时偕行). If phrases and sentence patterns expressing the concept of “time” are also taken into account, their frequency and intellectual significance far exceed mere literal statistics. Previous studies on the time philosophy of the Yizhuan has primarily followed four approaches: First, focusing on analyzing the philosophical implications of the concept of “time”, revealing its unique significance within the Chinese philosophical context (S.-h. Liu 1974, pp. 145–52; Lin 1993, pp. 12–25; Zhang 1999, pp. 61–72); Second, taking “time” as a foundational concept, constructing a philosophy of time and a philosophy of history (S.-h. Liu 2001, pp. 1–20; X. Wang 2001, pp. 38–46); Third, within the comparative philosophy framework, exploring the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western philosophies of time (Harbsmeier 1995, pp. 49–71; J. Liu 2015, pp. 8–19); Fourth, from the perspective of “futurology” and “future ethics” in the modern technological era, explore the “future ethics” in the Yizhuan, touching slightly on temporal ethics (Du 2025, pp. 80–89).1 The four research perspectives mentioned above all lack a profound interpretation of the ethical dimension of time.

Before proceeding with the discussion, we need to provide a concise definition of the concept of temporal ethics. So-called temporal ethics refers to an ethical theory that employs time as both a perspective and a method for understanding moral actions. This theory posits that when time becomes deeply intertwined with human moral practice, physical time at the cosmological level is imbued with moral content, transforming into ethical time with moral significance, used to convey specific value judgments. As Miao Chengzhang 繆成長 and Li Jun 李軍 have noted, according to the fundamental principles of ethics, temporal ethics is possible if it can be demonstrated that time holds moral-dimensional significance for human existence. “Although time exists dependent on the natural world, its value and meaning are directly defined by human existence. Humans are the primordial element of time’s value and meaning. Moreover, time in the present has become an important factor influencing human living conditions, even directly affecting physical and mental health. Therefore, time necessarily holds moral-dimensional significance for human existence, and the era has arrived to extend ethical concern to the dimension of time and establish temporal ethics” (Miao and Li 2017, pp. 119–23). The temporal ethics of the Yizhuan embodies the idea that “time necessarily holds moral-dimensional significance for human existence,” exploring how time constitutes the foundation and dimension of moral practice. Its core lies in the understanding that humans, as beings within time, have their ethical choices and moral responsibilities fundamentally shaped by the temporal structure within the perspective of the Will of Heaven. It emphasizes that moral value judgments are temporal and must be understood within the dimension of time regarding human moral life. It calls for the agent to act in accordance with the times and opposes the abstract application of moral principles detached from concrete situations. This ethical wisdom is sufficient to awaken one’s ethical awareness, enabling one to focus on moral practice.

Furthermore, we situate the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan within the philosophical framework of virtue ethics for examination. The reasons are as follows: The temporal ethics in the Yizhuan oppose theoretical models that strip away specific contexts, prioritize abstraction, and uphold rigid rules. Instead, it advocates a philosophical approach centered on the cultivation of the agent’s virtue, focusing on the holistic development of life and moral character. The Yizhuan posits that an agent’s virtue is the primary condition for receiving the Will of Heaven and acting in accordance with Heaven’s Timing. Only those of perfect virtue can advance in harmony with the times. By practicing the principle of “the Timely Mean” in the striving of a life that rejoices in Heaven and knows destiny,2 they can realize the ideal state of “the Way of the Mean” and achieve the highest ideal personality—that of the sage. Thus, it is evident that the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan aligns with the three most important characteristics that distinguish virtue ethics from deontology and consequentialism: virtue ethics is concerned with the agent rather than the act; a virtuous person is more capable of spontaneously doing what is right and taking pleasure in it; and virtue holds primacy in ethics. In summary, this study focuses on placing time within the broader context of ethical inquiry in the Yizhuan, proposing that the distinctive feature of its temporal ethics lies in its being a form of virtue ethics. It is grounded cosmologically in “the Will of Heaven” or “Heavenly Dao,” takes “the Timely Mean” as its fundamental practical principle, and integrates the Will of Heaven, human affairs, and the cultivation of virtue.

The research methodology followed in this paper is to demonstrate the logical progression and conceptual resonance among “the Will of Heaven,” “Heaven’s Timing,” and “the Timely Mean” through a creative interpretation of the text of the Yizhuan. This approach aims to achieve a philosophical reconstruction of the temporal ethics in the Yizhuan. In other words, the core task of this paper is to deduce, in terms of philosophical concepts and arguments, the tripartite ideological structure of the temporal ethics in the Yizhuan—namely, the three-part framework of “the Will of Heaven—Heaven’s Timing—the Timely Mean.” The main content and logical progression are as follows: Firstly, the internal logic from “the Will of Heaven” to “Heaven’s Timing” is that the Will of Heaven represents a transcendent cosmic principle, while Heaven’s Timing is the concrete manifestation of the Will of Heaven within time. The emergence of the concept of Heaven’s Timing indicates that the Yizhuan has already engaged in an in-depth exploration linking the concept of “time” with its notion of the Will of Heaven. Secondly, the internal logic from “Heaven’s Timing” to “the Timely Mean” is that the interaction of yin and yang gives rise to opportunities, and the practical agent, by entering into these opportunities, can uphold “the Way of the Mean.” Therefore, the Timely Mean is the practical wisdom through which the agent, in specific situations, conforms to “Heaven’s Timing” to achieve “the Way of the Mean.” The following section will provide a detailed philosophical argumentation for the aforementioned claims.

2. The Will of Heaven (Tianming 天命): The Transcendent Source of Temporal Ethics

From an ethical perspective, temporal ethics focuses on understanding moral practices within the time horizon. It should be noted, however, that when addressing ethical issues, ancient Chinese philosophers often sought ultimate or transcendent origins at the metaphysical level, thereby establishing a solid intellectual foundation for ethical practice. As the most central keyword in Chinese culture, the authority of “the Will of Heaven” has spanned thousands of years, both before and after the emergence of Confucianism, serving as the source of human order and ethical values. Therefore, we must examine the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan from the perspective of the Will of Heaven. This requires consideration from two aspects: first, analyze the concept of the Will of Heaven in the early Zhou dynasty and its idea of “matching heaven with virtue,” (yi de peitian 以德配天) which serves as the origin of the Will of Heaven thought in the Yizhuan; second, through philosophical reconstruction, explore how the concept of the Will of Heaven in the Yizhuan can function as the transcendent foundation of temporal ethics.

2.1. The Concept of the Will of Heaven in the Early Zhou Dynasty and Its Idea of “Matching Heaven with Virtue” (Yi De Peitian 以德配天)

The transition from the primitive religious culture represented by the Shang Dynasty to the moral humanistic spirit represented by the Western Zhou Dynasty constitutes a major trend in the evolution of early Chinese culture. In the beliefs of the Shang Dynasty, Di (帝), or Shangdi (上帝), was a transcendent power that governed all natural phenomena and beings. Chen Mengjia 陳夢家 pointed out that for the people of the Shang Dynasty, Di or Shangdi was the sovereign ruler over natural phenomena (Chen 1988, p. 580). By the late Shang Dynasty, Di or Shangdi came to be referred to as Heaven (Tian 天). The concepts of Di and Heaven gradually evolved into a sovereign deity with a will of its own, merging with the worship of ancestral spirits. Regarding the idea of Heaven, the Zhou people both inherited and followed the Shang practice of revering Heaven, while also transforming the religious and cultural perspective that regarded Heaven as the object of faith. The Zhou people believed that the Will of Heaven was questionable and not ever-changing. As recorded in the Book of Songs (ShiJing 詩經), “The Will of Heaven is not constant” (tianming michang 天命靡常) (Zhou 2010, p. 369). The Book of Songs is China’s first anthology of poetry, compiling 305 poems from the early Western Zhou period to the mid-Spring and Autumn period. Its final compilation occurred no later than the end of the Spring and Autumn period (770 BC–476 BC), and it was widely cited during the Warring States period. The reverence for Heaven and the notion that “The Will of Heaven is not constant” may seem like a paradox, yet both ideas coexisted in reality. Guo Moruo 郭沫若 argued that while the Zhou people inherited the Shang concept of the Will of Heaven, this inheritance was merely a matter of political strategy. The rhetoric of extreme reverence for Heaven was primarily targeted at the Shang people, reflecting a form of political wisdom aimed at governing them (Guo 2005, p. 15).

Through the reforms instituted by the Zhou people, the direct governing power of Heaven over human affairs gradually diminished. As a result, the legitimacy of political succession and the degree of social and political order became increasingly correlated with the inner virtue of political leaders. For example, the Book of Documents (Shangshu 尚書) states, “The great Heaven has no affections; it helps only the virtuous” (皇天無親，惟德是輔) (Li and Wang 2004, p. 334). It further declares, “Heaven is not to be trusted; our path lies in extending the virtuous rule of King Wen (Wengwang 文王), for Heaven will not lightly revoke the mandate it bestowed upon him” (天不可信，我道惟甯王德延，天不庸釋于文王受命) (Li and Wang 2004, p. 321). The Book of Documents is a compilation of historical records from the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, primarily consisting of official documents such as decrees, commentaries, and oaths. Some sections (such as the Book of Shang and the Book of Zhou) may have originated from the records of court historians during the Western Zhou to the Spring and Autumn periods, but were later refined by subsequent generations. This concept of revering and upholding virtue emphasizes human agency, relying on human virtue and ethical responsibility to bear the Will of Heaven.

In summary, the emergence of the concept of “matching Heaven with virtue” (yi de peitian 以德配天) infused the Will of Heaven with moral significance, signifying a transformation in the Will of Heaven—from a personal, sovereign deity to a Heaven of virtue imbued with humanistic values. By binding “the Will of Heaven” to morality, it imposed ethical constraints on political power and laid the cornerstone for later Confucian thought and indeed the entire tradition of Chinese political philosophy. To this day, this concept continues to shape the Chinese understanding of political legitimacy, the moral responsibility of rulers, and the deep-seated perceptions of social order.

2.2. How the Concept of the Will of Heaven in the Yizhuan Can Function as the Transcendent Foundation of Temporal Ethics

The Will of Heaven is a key proposition in the ethical thought of the Yizhuan. What is the Will of Heaven? As the Tuanzhuan of the Wuwang 無妄 hexagram (#25) states, “The word Wuwang 無妄 means acting without presumption. For instance, when the masculine force arrives from the outside and becomes the master within, its power is awe-inspiring and its nature robust. It upholds the Way of the Mean with integrity and responds harmoniously to what lies below, thereby achieving great prosperity and ensuring that all things maintain their correctness. This is ordained by the Will of Heaven. Those who deviate from the right path will incur calamity, and it is unfavorable to advance in such a state. When all things are acting without presumption, to depart from the right path and proceed, how could there be any path to follow? If the Will of Heaven does not grant its support, how dare one act so presumptuously” (無妄，剛自外來而為主於內，動而健，剛中而應，大亨以正，天之命也。其匪正有眚，不利有攸往。無妄之往，何之矣！天命不佑，行矣哉) (B. Wang 2011, p. 138). As the Tuanzhuan of the Cui 萃 hexagram (45#) declares, “The word ‘Cui’ 萃 means gathering. For instance, in times of harmony and joyful accord among all beings, if the firm and strong positioned above can uphold the Way of the Mean and respond to those below, it will attract and unite the multitude. At such a time, the ruler uses virtue to resonate with the spirits, thereby preserving the temple sacrifices. This expresses filial devotion to ancestors and offers the utmost sincerity. It is favorable for a great person to emerge, and the prospects are prosperous, indicating that when a great person presides over a gathering, he will certainly follow the correct path. Using a grand sacrifice with large animals brings good fortune and is favorable for advancing, showing that during a gathering, one must comply with the laws of Heaven. By observing the phenomenon of gathering, the nature of all things between heaven and earth can be understood” (萃，聚也。順以說，剛中而應，故聚也。王假有廟，致孝享也；利見大人亨，聚以正也；用大牲，吉。利有攸往，順天命也。觀其所聚，而天地萬物之情可見矣) (B. Wang 2011, p. 245).

The judgments of both hexagrams mention the Will of Heaven, and the concept closely related to “the Will of Heaven” is “Heavenly Dao.” The Yizhuan’s core concern lies in deducing human affairs from the principles of Heaven, which are the laws of nature. This establishes the construction of human social and political order upon the self-evident principles of Heaven, thereby elevating Confucian humanistic ideals to a cosmological level. As the Xicizhuan states, “The Yi 易 is vast and comprehensive. It encompasses Heavenly Dao (Tiandao 天道), Human Dao (Rendao 人道), and Earthly Dao (Didao 地道). Combining the three realms and halving them yields six. Six is nothing other than the way of the three realms” (易廣大悉備，有天道焉，有人道焉，有地道焉。兼三才而兩之，故六。六者非它也，三才之道也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 376). The three realms refer to Heaven, Earth, and Humanity—the three most fundamental and essential elements that constitute all things in the universe. These three realms are interconnected, yet each possesses its own distinct laws. As the Tuanzhuan of the Qian 謙 hexagram (#15) states, “Heavenly Dao diminishes the full and increases the humble; Earthly Dao transforms the full into the deficient; the ghosts and spirits harm the full and bless the humble; and Human Dao detests the full and favors the humble. Humility is honored and radiant; lowly yet unassailable—this is the ultimate state of the noble person” (天道虧盈而益謙，地道變盈而流謙，鬼神害盈而福謙，人道惡盈而好謙，謙尊而光，卑而不可踰，君子之終也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 88). From this perspective, the Yizhuan is a text that expounds the fundamental principles of the universe and human existence. This fundamental principle is the mutual resonance among Heaven, Earth, and Humanity (B. Zhu 2009, p. 82). This highly philosophical mode of thought emerged precisely from the vibrant intellectual debates fostered by the free academic atmosphere between the periods of Spring and Autumn and Warring States.

As the Xicizhuan states, “The Yi 易 is said to be the ultimate! It is through the Yi that the sages revered virtue and broadened their undertakings” (易其至矣乎！夫易，聖人所以崇德而廣業也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 348). Revering virtue pertains to inner sagely cultivation, while broadening undertakings relates to outer kingly achievements. As the Xicizhuan states, “The rise of the Yi occurred in Middle Antiquity. Did its author harbor anxieties? Therefore, Lü 履 is the foundation of virtue. Qian 謙 is the handle of virtue. Fu 復 is the root of virtue. Heng 恒 is the steadfastness of virtue. Sun 損 is the refinement of virtue. Yi 益 is the abundance of virtue. Kun 困 is the discernment of virtue. Jing 井 is the ground of virtue. Xun 巽 is the regulation of virtue” (易之興也，其於中古乎？作易者，其有憂患乎？是故履，德之基也。謙，德之柄也。複，德之本也。恒，德之固也。損，德之修也。益，德之裕也。困，德之辨也。井，德之地也。巽，德之制也) (B. Wang 2011, pp. 370–71). Kong Yingda 孔穎達 commented that, “It is believed that to address hardship, the fundamental practice lies in cultivating virtue. All sixty-four hexagrams pertain to the cultivation of virtue and the warding off of troubles, but these nine hexagrams in particular are the most profound in cultivating virtue. Therefore, they are singled out here to illustrate the principle of guarding against adversity” (Ruan 2009, p. 186). The consciousness of hardship is not a negative emotional fear but rather a profound ethical awakening. Kong Yingda’s commentary explicitly states that the entire Yizhuan can be regarded as a guide to “cultivating virtue and warding off troubles.” Among these, the nine hexagrams—Lü hexagram (#10), Qian hexagram (#15), Fu hexagram (#24), Heng hexagram (#32), Sun hexagram (#41), Yi hexagram (#42), Kun hexagram (#47), Jing hexagram (#48), and Xun hexagram (#57)—are singled out as the key to moral cultivation. Zhu Xi 朱熹 also remarked, “The nine hexagrams are expounded three times to illustrate the way of dealing with hardship” (X. Zhu 2009, p. 255). By repeatedly elaborating on the ethical significance of the nine hexagrams—Lü hexagram (#10), Qian hexagram (#15), Fu hexagram (#24), and others—Zhu Xi aimed to admonish people that when facing adversity, they should emulate the Will of Heaven, striving tirelessly with strength and determination. Thus, as the Xicizhuan states, “The great virtue of Heaven and earth is giving life” (天地之大德曰生) (B. Wang 2011, p. 362). The greatest virtue of Heaven and Earth lies in the boundless generation of all things.

Based on the above analysis, in the Yizhuan, “the Will of Heaven” or “Heavenly Dao” refers to the necessary order of the cosmos and the moral law. The Yizhuan emphasizes “understanding the Will of Heaven” and “standing in awe of it,” advocating that while conforming to objective laws, humanity should endow the Will of Heaven with moral significance through ethical practice. This concept acknowledges transcendent constraints while also vesting individuals with the responsibility to actively engage in moral action.

3. Heaven’s Timing (Tianshi 天時): The Concrete Manifestation of the Will of Heaven (Tianming 天命) Within the Realm of Time and Space

We believe that the ideological structure of temporal ethics in the Yizhuan is grounded in the metaphysical concept of “the Will of Heaven,” which unfolds concretely in the form of “Heaven’s Timing.” How is the internal logic from “The Will of Heaven” to “Heaven’s Timing” possible? Why can “Heaven’s Timing” be regarded as the concrete manifestation of “the Will of Heaven” within the temporal-spatial context? These questions represent the core tasks we face in reconstructing the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan. In the following sections, we will provide a philosophical demonstration of this theoretical framework through conceptual examination and logical deduction.

3.1. Reconstructing the Concept of “Heaven’s Timing”: From Natural Rhythms and Cosmic Order to the Structure of Meaning and the Source of Value

The concept of “Heaven’s Timing” first appears in the Wenyanzhuan of the Qian 乾 hexagram (#1), which states, “The great man harmonizes his virtue with Heaven and earth, his brightness with the sun and moon, his order with the four seasons, and his fortune and misfortune with the spirits. Preceding Heaven without defying it, and following Heaven by adhering to its timing” (夫大人者，與天地合其德，與日月合其明，與四時合其序，與鬼神合其吉凶。先天而天弗違，後天而奉天時) (B. Wang 2011, p. 7). The emergence of the concept of “Heaven’s Timing” indicates that the Yizhuan has already linked the notion of “time” with the idea of “the Will of Heaven” and explored them in depth—“Heaven’s Timing” is the temporal dimension of “the Will of Heaven.” The Yizhuan holds that humans should revere and comply with Heaven’s Timing, because Heaven’s Timing is a concrete manifestation of the Will of Heaven. As Chao Fulin 晁福林 observes, “The emphasis on time derives its theoretical basis from being a discursive embodiment of the Will of Heaven” (Chao 2008, pp. 39–47). When discussing the relationship between “Heaven” and “humanity,” the Yizhuan emphasizes the distinction between “preceding Heaven” and “following Heaven.” However, regardless of this distinction, the actions and decisions of sages, great individuals, and the wise are always aligned with the Will of Heaven, which reveals the inherent consistency between “the Will of Heaven” itself and the operation of “Heaven’s Timing.” Kong Yingda 孔穎達 states, “‘Preceding Heaven without defying it’ means that if one acts ahead of Heaven’s Timing, Heaven will follow and not oppose—this is Heaven aligning with the great individual. ‘following Heaven by adhering to its timing’ means that if one acts after Heaven’s Timing, one can still follow and comply with Heaven—this is the great individual aligning with Heaven” (‘先天而天弗違’者，若在天時之先行事，天乃在後不違，是天合大人也。‘後天而奉天時’者，若在天時之後行事，能奉順上天，是大人合天也) (Ruan 2009, p. 30). Kong Yingda’s interpretation also illustrates that Heaven’s Timing arises from a subtle understanding of the Will of Heaven, and in essence, it aligns with the Will of Heaven, serving as its concrete manifestation within specific temporal and spatial contexts. Mou Zongsan 牟宗三 regarded these two statements as the overarching principles of Confucian moral metaphysics. Heaven cannot violate the virtue inherent in the life of the sage, and this virtue must be understood from a transcendent perspective—the entire life of the sage is a life of moral virtue. From a practical standpoint, the sage must also adhere to “Heaven’s Timing” and cannot act against natural trends (Mou 2004, pp. 26–27).

Within the framework of temporal ethics in the Yizhuan, the fundamental meaning of “Heaven’s Timing” contains the following two aspects:

On the one hand, it refers to the temporal sequence of natural rhythms and the cosmic order. This describes the meaning of “time” (shi 時), representing a specific temporal concept referenced against space or “position” (wei 位). It primarily refers to solar terms, the four seasons, and hours of the day. Xu Shen’s 許慎 Shuowen Jiezi 說文解字 explains the character “time” as meaning “the four seasons.” It is formed with the radical sun with temple as the phonetic component. Duan Yucai 段玉裁 annotated, “Originally referring to the designations of spring, autumn, winter, and summer, it was later extended to encompass all uses related to years, months, days, and hours” (Duan 2015, p. 530). Etymologically, the original meaning of “time” was the position and rhythm of the sun’s movement. This further extended to denote the scales measuring temporal change, embodying ancient humanity’s rudimentary understanding of natural order. It also signified the creation of astronomical calendars in response to this order, transforming natural phenomena into human-made tools to guide daily life practices. For instance, as the Tuanzhuan of Heng 恒 hexagram (#32) states, “The sun and moon, receiving their power from Heaven, can illuminate for long periods; the four seasons change and transform, enabling enduring completion” (日月得天而能久照，四時變化而能久成) (B. Wang 2011, p. 176). The Xicizhuan declares, “There is no greater transformation and adaptability than that of the four seasons” (變通莫大乎四時) (B. Wang 2011, p. 358). It also says, “As the sun departs, the moon arrives; as the moon departs, the sun arrives. The sun and moon alternate, and thus light is generated. As cold departs, heat arrives; as heat departs, cold arrives. Cold and heat alternate, and thus the year is formed” (日往則月來，月往則日來，日月相推而明生焉。寒往則暑來，暑往則寒來，寒暑相推而歲成焉) (B. Wang 2011, p. 366). These passages reveal the cyclical laws of nature through descriptions of solar-lunar alternation, seasonal shifts, and the succession of cold and heat. The mutual propulsion of sun and moon generates day and night, while the interplay of cold and heat forms the four seasons. This constitutes a naturalistic interpretation—that temporal change originates from material factors like celestial motion and climatic variation. As the Tuanzhuan of Bi 賁 hexagram (#22) states, “Observe the celestial phenomena to discern the change of time” (觀乎天文，以察時變) (B. Wang 2011, p. 121). “Celestial phenomena” (tianwen 天文) here encompass not only stars but all regular, cyclical natural occurrences—the movements of sun and moon, seasonal shifts, variations in day and night length, meteorological patterns, and phenological signs. “The change of time” (shibian 時變) signifies not merely temporal shifts but the rhythmic states and transformative opportunities that all things manifest in accordance with the seasons. In other words, “Celestial phenomena” are the manifestation of the Heavenly Dao, while “the change of time” emphasizes how the Heavenly Dao unfolds through time. Together, they constitute the key through which “the Will of Heaven” is transformed into the concrete temporal dimension. Through long-term observation of natural rhythms—such as the shadow of the sun, lunar phases, the rotation of the Big Dipper, and the positions of the Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions—ancient Chinese people precisely grasped temporal cycles and established calendars. This demonstrates that ancient Chinese people recognized early on the vital guiding role of “Heaven’s Timing” in practical life.

On the other hand, it refers to the abstract concept of time as the structure of meaning in life and the source of value. This is the ontological and moral significance of “time”. In this sense, “time” often refers to fortune, circumstance, and opportunity, indicating that the Chinese people have never lacked a highly theoretical concept of time related to the substance of life—what is missing is merely a mathematically dominated concept of time. (S.-h. Liu 1974, pp. 145–52). As the Xicizhuan states, “Adaptation and flexibility mean aligning with the trends of time” (變通者，趣時者也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 361). “Aligning with the trends of time” (qushi 趣時) is not passive waiting, but actively discerning the rhythms of cosmic movement to anticipate opportunities before changes manifest. As the Wenyanzhuan of the Qian 乾 hexagram (#1) states, “The noble person advances in virtue and cultivates his endeavors, striving to act promptly, thus he remains free of blame” (君子進德修業，欲及時也，故無咎) (B. Wang 2011, p. 5). This means that the noble person devotes himself daily to cultivating virtue and refining his undertakings, so that when the opportune moment arrives, he can fully grasp it, strive with determination, and thereby avoid calamity. Here, the character “a timely manner” precisely refers to “the opportune moment.” As the Tuanzhuan of the Sheng 升 hexagram (#46) states, “Through gentleness, one rises in accordance with the time; being humble and compliant, firm yet balanced and responsive, thus achieving great success” (柔以時升，巽而順，剛中而應，是以大亨) (B. Wang 2011, p. 250). Here, “time” should be understood as “the trend of the times.” It serves to admonish the diviner that only by advancing in harmony with the trend of the times, maintaining humility and harmony, and achieving a balance between firmness and flexibility, can one attain great prosperity. This actually reveals a crucial relationship— “success” must be grounded in “timeliness”; without aligning with the times, it is difficult to achieve great success. As the Xiangzhuan of the Jie 節 hexagram (#60) states, “Not stepping beyond the gate and courtyard brings misfortune, for it misses the critical moment” (不出門庭凶，失時極也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 316). Here, “misses the critical moment” means “missing the appropriate opportunity.” Specifically, it refers to missing the optimal measure and timely occasion for action due to excessive restraint and refusal to venture beyond one’s confines.

This dynamic adaptation embodies “the Timely Mean” state advocated in the Yizhuan—neither clinging to outdated conventions nor acting recklessly—maintaining a fluid equilibrium within shifting circumstances. It achieves profound resonance between human conduct and cosmic principles across the temporal dimension.

3.2. A Complete System of Ethical Practice That Involves Recognizing the Will of Heaven, Understanding the Trends of the Times, and Cultivating Moral Character

The concept of “time” is integrated with the notion of “the Will of Heaven,” to gether forming a complete system of ethical practice that involves recognizing the Will of Heaven, understanding the trends of the times, and cultivating moral character. As the Wenyanzhuan of the Kun 坤 hexagram (#2) states, “It is supremely soft yet moves with strength; supremely still yet its virtue is steadfast. It attains its master and thus possesses constancy; it embraces all things and transforms them with radiance. Is not the way of Kun one of compliance? It follows the order of Heaven and acts in accordance with the time” (至柔而動也剛，至靜而德方；後得主而有常，舍萬物而化光。坤道其順乎？承天而時行) (B. Wang 2011, p. 19). “Following the order of Heaven” (chengtian 承天) represents a fundamental ethical attitude—one of reverence, respect, and a conscious adherence to higher principles and order. Here, “Heaven” refers not only to the natural cosmos but also to the moral cosmos, embodying the laws of the universe, the source of morality, the principles of social justice, and the trends of history. Ethically, it demands that humans refrain from arrogance and arbitrary actions, instead cultivating humility and a sense of reverence. The Tuanzhuan of the Dayou 大有 hexagram (#14) states, “Its virtue is strong and steadfast, yet cultured and luminous; it responds to Heaven and acts in accordance with the time, thus achieving supreme prosperity” (其德剛健而文明，應乎天而時行，是以元亨) (B. Wang 2011, p. 83). The virtue of the Dayou 大有 hexagram (#14) is characterized by strength and steadfastness, combined with cultural refinement and luminosity. “Responding to Heaven” (ying hu tian 應乎天) means both conforming to Heavenly Dao and aligning with the noble mission bestowed by Heaven—that is, complying with the Will of Heaven. “Acts in accordance with the time” (shixing 時行) represents a crucial ethical wisdom: actions must be timely and evolve with the times. Ethical practice is not about rigidly applying doctrines but about responding appropriately, in the right manner, at the right moment. As the Xicizhuan states, “He who rejoices in Heaven and understands its destiny therefore has no anxieties” (樂天知命，故不憂) (B. Wang 2011, p. 345). Understanding the destiny refers to the recognition of the Will of Heaven, serving as the transcendent basis for the subject’s action. As the Xiangzhuan of the Dayou 大有 hexagram (#14) states, “The noble person, by restraining evil and promoting goodness, complying with Heaven and fulfills and honors its destiny” (君子以遏惡揚善，順天休命) (B. Wang 2011, p. 83) This “complying with Heaven and fulfills and honors its destiny” refers both to the perfection inherent in the Will of Heaven itself and emphasizes how humans, through moral action, enable the Will of Heaven to be settled and manifested in the human world.

In other words, Heavenly Dao Reveals its Divine Order (shendao 神道) through time, while Human Dao establishes ethical education by emulating time. Temporal ethics examines the interplay between time and ethics, exploring how time shapes ethical norms and how ethical actions respond to temporal patterns. The Yizhuan superimposes a transcendent, spiritual “Heavenly Dao” or “The Will of Heaven” upon the physical transformations of time. Thus, temporal phenomena like the alternation of day and night and the progression of the four seasons are ultimately attributed to the manifestation and propulsion of “Heavenly Dao” or “The Will of Heaven”.3 As the Tuanzhuan of the Feng 豐 hexagram (#55) states, “The fullness and emptiness of Heaven and earth rise and fall with the tides of time” (天地盈虛，與時消息) (B. Wang 2011, p. 294). The key to “rise and fall with the tides of time” lies in the word “with”, which requires humans to establish a dynamic, responsive ethical relationship with time. As the Tuanzhuan of the Guan 觀 hexagram (#20) states, “Observing the divine order of Heaven, the four seasons never err; the sages establish education in accordance with this divine order, and the world submits to it” (觀天之神道，而四時不忒；聖人以神道設教，而天下服矣) (B. Wang 2011, p. 110). Here, “the divine order of Heaven” (tian zhi shendao 天之神道) does not refer to ghosts or deities, but rather to the orderly yet profound temporal patterns inherent in the workings of the Way of Heaven. By observing the wondrous principles of Heavenly Dao, one can see the unfailing precision of the changing seasons. Through establishing education in these principles, human actions are aligned with the appropriate timing, and life resonates with the rhythms of the seasons, ultimately achieving the civilizational order of the world, submitting to it.

In summary, the connection from the Will of Heaven to Heaven’s Timing reveals that, even under the absolute authority of the Will of Heaven, individuals still possess a certain degree of autonomy. A person can either actively align their actions with Heaven’s Timing when it is conducive to their development, or remain in a state of retreat and wait during unfavorable periods, patiently awaiting the right moment. This concept opens up a relatively free space for individual action, enabling one to become the master of one’s own destiny. Propositions such as “following Heaven by adhering to its timing” (houtian er fengtianshi 後天而奉天時) and “It follows the order of Heaven and acts in accordance with the time” (chengtian er shixing 承天而時行) not only reflect adherence to the rhythms of nature but also represent a proactive alignment with the temporal order manifested by the Will of Heaven in human affairs. They require individuals, based on a deep understanding of the overarching direction of “the Will of Heaven,” to assess situations carefully and act in response to opportunities within specific contexts. This process realizes the practical implementation of “the Will of Heaven”: the abstract will of the Heavenly Dao is transformed into a viable course of action through humanity’s precise discernment and utilization of “time,” ultimately achieving the supreme state of harmonizing one’s virtue with that of Heaven and Earth. This represents not only the core spirit of the Yizhuan’s temporal ethics but also the ultimate answer within traditional Chinese culture to the fundamental question of how humanity exists within time.

4. The Timely Mean (Shizhong 時中): The Practical Wisdom of Adapting to Circumstances and the Way of the Mean (Zhongdao 中道)

In the previous section, through a philosophical reconstruction of the concept of “Heaven’s Timing,” we focused on analyzing how this concept evolved from natural rhythms and cosmic order into the structure of meaning and the source of value for ethical action, thereby establishing an intrinsic logical relationship between “the Will of Heaven” and “Heaven’s Timing.” So, within the temporal ethical framework of the Yizhuan, how is the internal logic from “Heaven’s Timing” to “the Way of the Mean” made possible? To answer this question, we must similarly seek an answer through scholarly analysis and philosophical reconstruction of the relevant concepts.

4.1. Reconstructing the Concept of “The Way of the Mean”: How Temporal Order Evolves into a Value Criterion for Judging the Correctness of Actions

First, the emergence of the concept of “the Timely Mean” indicates that the Yizhuan has already delved into an in-depth exploration by linking the concept of “time” with that of “mean.” In this context, “time” functions as a temporal adverb modifying the noun “mean,” where “mean” refers to what Confucianism calls “the Way of the Mean” (Zhongdao 中道). As the Tuanzhuan of the Meng 蒙 hexagram (#4) states, “Meng signifies prosperity. To advance with prosperity is to be the Timely Mean” (蒙，亨，以亨行，時中也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 31). The Timely Mean is the core principle of the Yizhuan. Qing dynasty scholar Hui Dong 惠棟 stated, “The Yizhuan is profound; to encapsulate it in one phrase: The Timely Mean” (Hui 2020, p. 200). Cheng Yi 程頤 stated, “The so-called ‘way of flourishing’ refers to ‘the Timely Mean’. ‘Timing’ means gaining the ruler’s response. ‘Mean’ means occupying the central position. When centering is achieved, then the timing is achieved” (所謂亨道，時中也。‘時’，謂得君之應。‘中’，謂處得其中。得中則時也) (Li 2013, p. 312). “The Timely Mean” here does not refer to a static centering, but rather to the precise timing and measured action within specific contexts, embodying the dynamic integration of “time” and “mean.” It emphasizes that “the Way of the Mean” must be manifested in accordance with the “time” and adapts with changing circumstances. This reveals the unity of cosmic order (Heaven’s Timing) and human agency (Act in accordance with the Way of the Mean) achieved through dynamic practice.

Second, a core principle in the Yizhuan for interpreting the hexagrams is: when yin and yang interact, there is smoothness and auspiciousness; when they do not interact, there is obstruction and misfortune. This principle is reflected both in the relationship between the upper and lower trigrams of a hexagram and within the interactions of its six lines. The so-called “interaction” or “encounter” implies that differing or opposing forces transcend their inherent static attributes and fully immerse themselves in a dynamic situation of mutual transformation. This process gives rise to new “opportunities of time,” allowing people to comprehend them. Therefore, the true meaning of “mean” should be understood along the lines of “the interaction of yin and yang generates opportunities of time, and humans resonate with these opportunities.” For example, the Tuanzhuan of the Dayou 大有 hexagram (#14) states, “The yielding attains the honored position, is great and central, and those above and below respond to it. This is called ‘Dayou.’ Its virtue is strong and steadfast, yet cultured and luminous; it responds to Heaven and acts in accordance with the time, thus achieving supreme prosperity” (柔得尊位大中，而上下應之，曰大有。其德剛健而文明，應乎天而時行，是以元亨) (B. Wang 2011, p. 83). In essence, this means that when a yielding line occupies a respected position, maintains centrality on a grand scale, and receives responses from the firm lines above and below, great possession is achieved. By upholding the virtue of firmness, strength, refinement, and brightness, and by following the laws of Heaven while acting in accordance with the time, the prospects become supremely smooth. The reason this hexagram conveys an auspicious intention lies in its sole yin line 陰爻 occupying the honored position, which tends to interact downward with the yang lines 陽爻, generating the “primordial mean” (Zhang 1999, pp. 61–72). This enables it to “respond to Heaven and act in accordance with the time.”

Cheng Zhongying 成中英 interprets “the Timely Mean” thus: “An action is good or appropriate when it arises from its interconnection and coordination with all yin and yang elements within the situation. The so-called ‘Timely Mean’ means being connected to, coordinated with, and conforming to the times. This requires personal experience and knowledge” (Cheng 2006, p. 187). Cheng Zhongying’s words are indeed apt. “The Timely Mean” embodies a dynamic, holistic, and practical ethical perspective within the philosophy of the Yizhuan: the essence of goodness lies in harmony with the cosmic order, and the key to realizing goodness depends on whether one can discern the times with a clear mind, coordinate yin and yang, and ultimately attain the life realm of the Way of the Mean. Therefore, “mean” should be understood as the occurrence and maintenance of the interaction between yin and yang, and as the emergence and comprehension of opportunities. Only by abiding in this “mean” can all things prosper and flow smoothly, and human actions align with “Heaven’s Timing”, thereby attracting good fortune and avoiding misfortune. Thus, “attaining mean” or “preserving mean” means actively participating in and sustaining that ceaseless creative momentum, capturing and embodying the most vital opportunities within a world of constant change.

In summary, the Yizhuan points out that, from the cosmological context of “the Will of Heaven” and “Heaven’s Timing” down to the level of human action, human beings—as concrete, sensory existences within the flow of time—should attain a profound understanding and mastery of the “temporal significance” and its great function as revealed in each hexagram. For example, the Tuanzhuan of the Yu 豫 hexagram (#16) states, “The temporal significance of Yu is profound indeed” (B. Wang 2011, p. 93); the Tuanzhuan of Dun 遯 hexagram (#33) says, “The temporal significance of Dun is profound indeed” (B. Wang 2011, p. 180); the Tuanzhuan of Gou 姤 hexagram (#44) remarks, “The temporal significance of Gou is profound indeed” (B. Wang 2011, p. 239); the Tuanzhuan of Kui 睽 hexagram (#38) notes, “The practical application of Kui is profound indeed” (B. Wang 2011, p. 203); and the Tuanzhuan of Xikan 習坎 hexagram (#29) observes, “The practical application of danger is profound indeed” (B. Wang 2011, p. 159) The fundamental principle for understanding and grasping the “temporal significance” and profound application of a hexagram is “the Timely Mean.” By achieving this, one can abide in “the Timely Mean” according to the time, thereby cultivating virtue and expanding endeavors, and thus opening up an ideal space for human survival and development.

4.2. “The Timely Mean” Embodies the Practical Wisdom of Responding to Temporal Change

Human existence fundamentally unfolds within time, and the essence of “the Timely Mean” lies in grasping the Way of the Mean at the precise juncture presented by specific circumstances. Mastering the Way of the Mean is inseparable from practical wisdom, for it serves as humanity’s true guiding force toward a better life. Practical wisdom bridges universal principles and particular situations, connecting value ideals with concrete actions. The practical wisdom dimension of “the Timely Mean” vividly manifests in how one should move with the times amidst concrete circumstances of temporal change to grasp the Way of the Mean. Fang Dongmei 方東美 stated, “The hexagrams and lines of the Yizhuan preserve time to demonstrate change. The profound meaning of the Yizhuan lies in pursuing time to respond to change” (Fang 1979, p. 133). The Yizhuan places great emphasis on the intrinsic interdependence of “change” (bian 變) and “time” (shi 時). “Time” is the basis for “change”, and “change” is the manifestation of “time”. As the Tuanzhuan of the Bi 賁 hexagram (#22) states, “Observe the patterns of Heaven to discern temporal change; observe the patterns of humanity to transform and perfect the world” (觀乎天文，以察時變；觀乎人文，以化成天下) (B. Wang 2011, p. 121).

The concept of “temporal change” possesses four defining characteristics: first, perpetual flux; second, ceaseless generation; third, cyclical recurrence; fourth, inherent order. (Lin 1993, pp. 12–25) Among these, constant flux is the most crucial. The Xicizhuan declares, “The Yi cannot be fixed far away, its principle undergoes repeated shifts. Flux knows no fixed abode, circulating through the six voids. Above and below hold no permanence; the firm and yielding exchange places. It cannot be made a fixed rule; only adaptation to change is possible” (易之為書也不可遠，為道也屢遷。變動不居，周流六虛。上下無常，剛柔相易，不可為典要，唯變所適) (B. Wang 2011, pp. 373–74). Regarding change, the Yizhuan not only offers profound insights into the contradictory movements of phenomena in the empirical world—recognizing that all things perpetually transform toward their opposites—but also grasps that the ultimate entity underlying all cosmic existence is not static or immobile. Instead, it perpetually sustains itself through ceaseless change, rendering it inaccessible through objectified cognition.

Broadly speaking, each hexagram in the Yizhuan expresses a specific “hexagram time” (guashi 卦時) outlining the correct choices an actor should make in a particular situation. (Zhang 1999, pp. 61–72). As the Tuanzhuan of the Gen 艮 hexagram (#52) states, “To stop when it is time to stop, to act when it is time to act; in movement and stillness, one never loses the proper timing” (時止則止，時行則行，動靜不失其時) (B. Wang 2011, p. 282). As the Wenyanzhuan of the Qian 乾 hexagram (#1) advises, “To be diligent and vigilant all day long, advancing in step with the time” (終日乾乾，與時偕行) (B. Wang 2011, p. 6). As the Tuanzhuan of the Sun 損 hexagram (#41) notes, “Decrease and increase, fullness and emptiness—all advance in step with the time,” (損益盈虛，與時偕行) (B. Wang 2011, p. 220) and as the Tuanzhuang of the Yi 益 hexagram (#42) similarly says, “The way of increase is to advance in step with the time” (凡益之道，與時偕行) (B. Wang 2011, p. 228). All these passages emphasize that action must accord with the circumstances of the time, which can be seen as the concretization of “the Timely Mean” methodology.

The Yuan dynasty scholar Hu Bingwen 胡炳文 commented that the concept of “time” in “advance in step with the time” (yushixiexing 與時偕行) emphasizes a holistic grasp of opportunity. When reduction is called for, reduce; when augmentation is appropriate, augment. If the timing is mistaken, the actions of reduction and augmentation lose their proper significance. For the acting subject, advancing in step with the time means aligning with the inherent transitional state of “time”—or, in other words, welcoming its constant arrival with a composed demeanor, and ensuring the renewal of new opportunities while maintaining the evolving dynamics of the present situation (Hu 2005, p. 273). As French sinologist Julien observes, the Yizhuan employs a systematic approach through case studies (the “time” represented by a series of hexagrams) to comprehensively discern real-world situations, guiding actors on how to act in accordance with shifting opportunities (Jullien 2016, pp. 155–56).

Approaching and seizing the opportune moment is also termed “knowing the subtle signs” (zhiji 知幾). These signs exist between presence and absence, visibility and concealment, making them exceedingly elusive and delicate moments that reveal the turning points or pivotal opportunities in the unfolding of events. As the Xicizhuan states, “To discern the subtle signs—how divine! The noble person, in dealing with superiors, is not obsequious; in dealing with inferiors, is not disrespectful. Does he not discern the subtle signs? The subtle signs are the faintest stirrings of movement, the forerunners of good or ill. The noble person, seeing the subtle signs, acts without waiting until the end of the day” (知幾其神乎！君子上交不諂，下交不瀆，其知幾乎。幾者，動之微，吉凶之先見者也。君子見幾而作，不俟終日) (B. Wang 2011, pp. 367–68). The subtle signs are the faintest stirrings of change, the harbingers of auspiciousness. The essence of the world is “change and transformation,” (bianyi 變易) and the highest wisdom of humanity lies in grasping the nascent subtlety of change and participating in it through actions that are neither fawning nor disrespectful. This is both a way of knowing and a way of being. Through “knowing the subtle signs” (zhiji 知幾) and “acting upon perceiving it” (jian ji er zuo 見幾而作), one ultimately achieves the life realm of “understanding the profound mysteries and knowing the transformations—the pinnacle of virtue” (qiongshen zhihua de zhi sheng 窮神知化, 德之盛).

4.3. Xun 巽 Embodies the Exercise of Discretion (Xun Yi Xingquan 巽以行權) Is the Core Principle of the Timely Mean

The concepts of “time”, “discretion” (quan 權), and “mean” are logically sequential, while being integrated in practice. “Discretion” held a central position in the ethical lives of ancient Chinese people, yet it has not garnered significant attention from modern scholars. As Qian Zhongshu 錢鐘書 aptly observed, “‘Discretion’ is a fundamental principle in our nation’s ancient ethics, yet contemporary scholars seem to have overlooked it” (Qian 2007, p. 340). Historically, as early as the Pre-Qin period, Confucius endowed “discretion” with rich ethical connotations. Confucius 孔子 said, “Those who study together may not share the same goals in learning; those who share the same goals may not be able to act in accordance with ritual norms in practice; and those who can act in accordance with ritual norms may not necessarily achieve the appropriate ‘exercise of discretion’” (可與共學，未可與適道；可與適道，未可與立；可與立，未可與權) (Yang 2009, p. 94). “Discretion” (quan 權) is not a negation of “learning, sharing the same goals, and acting in accordance with ritual norms,” but rather their sublimation and consummation. It transforms rigid principles into a living, adaptable practical wisdom capable of responding to ever-changing circumstances.

The concepts of “Exercising Discretion” (xingquan 行權) and “the Timely Mean” in the Yizhuan are not isolated; “the Timely Mean” constitutes the essence, while “Exercising Discretion” represents its application. Both are unified within the Yizhuan’s temporal ethics, which profoundly grasp the ever-changing world, ultimately pointing toward a highly contextualized practical wisdom. The Xicizhuan states, “Xun 巽 embodies the exercise of discretion” (巽以行權) (B. Wang 2011, p. 373). Wang Bi’s annotation explains, “Discretion means reversing established norms to align with the Dao. Only by conforming to the principle of yielding and compliance can one exercise discretion” (權，反經而合道，必合乎巽順，而後可以行權也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 373). The established Dao is the norm, while temporary strategies constitute discretion. Gao Heng 高亨 points out that Xun 巽 signifies yielding, “Yielding means withdrawing and concealing oneself to execute temporary strategies” (Gao 2010, p. 437). Thus, “Xun 巽 embodies the exercise of discretion” means that the Xun 巽 hexagram (#57) is tailored to specific circumstances, enabling one to address issues flexibly without deviating from the constant Dao, thereby achieving the ideal state of the Mean.

In his essay “On the Character ‘Quan’,” (ke quan zi shuo 可權字說) Hu Bingwen 胡炳文 argues, “The 384 lines of the Yi are but one ‘time’ character. To seize the Middle at all times is precisely this ‘discretion’ character. The hexagrams speak of establishing principles, not of exercising discretion. Discretion remains latent within the 384 lines, never fully revealed. When scholars attain a firm foundation and mastery of meaning and compassion, they naturally grasp all intricacies of reason—coarse and fine, straight and crooked—as seamlessly as wind permeates objects without leaving a trace. This is what is meant by Xun 巽 Embodies the Exercise of Discretion (Xun Yi Xingquan 巽以行權)” (易三百八十四爻只是一時字，能隨時以取中，即是此一權字。卦言立不言權，權固伏於三百八十四爻之中而不露爾。學者能卓爾有立，至於義精仁熟，凡事理精粗曲折处，自然無不相入，殆如風之入物有不見其跡者，是之謂巽以行權) (Hu 2016, p. 1373). Hu Bingwen proposed a two-step cultivation path for exercising discretion: First comes establishment —establishing fundamental principles and activating the moral subject’s agency, forming the foundation for discretion that stays true to the Dao. Second comes mastery—through meticulous study of principles and practical reasoning, achieving the realm of “refined righteousness and mature benevolence,” (yijingrenshu 義精仁熟) where one naturally aligns with all the intricate details of every situation.

4.4. “The Timely Mean” and the Sagely Realm

The Timely Mean is not only a principle of action but also the ideal character and supreme spiritual state achieved through this principle, namely what Confucianism calls the “timely sage” (sheng zhi shi zhe 聖之時者) As Mencius described Confucius, “He would take office when it was appropriate to do so, and withdraw when it was appropriate to withdraw. He would remain for long when it was fitting, and act swiftly when speed was required” (可以仕則仕，可以止則止，可以久則久，可以速則速) (Yang 2010, p. 58). Confucius is called the “timely sage” because his true value lies in his ability to assess the situation. He advanced when it was time to advance and retreated when it was time to retreat; he would stay and persevere with composure when the situation allowed, and act decisively when swift action was necessary. As the Tuanzhuang of the Gen 艮 hexagram (#52) states, “To stop when it is time to stop, to act when it is time to act; in movement and stillness, one never loses the proper timing, and the way of stilling shines brightly” (時止則止，時行則行，動靜不失其時，其道光明) (B. Wang 2011, p. 282).

Other relevant descriptions of the “timely sage” in the Yizhuan are as follows: Taking the Wenyanzhuan for the Qian 乾 hexagram (#1) as an example, “The great man harmonizes his virtue with Heaven and earth, his brightness with the sun and moon, his order with the four seasons, and his fortune and misfortune with the spirits. Acting before Heaven without defying it, and following Heaven by adhering to its timing” (夫大人者，與天地合其德，與日月合其明，與四時合其序，與鬼神合其吉凶。先天而天弗違，後天而奉天時) (B. Wang 2011, p. 7). The great person has reached the highest spiritual state, integrating heaven and humanity into a unified whole, achieving an ideal state of harmony and unity between the individual and the vast cosmos. The Wenyanzhuan for the Qian 乾 hexagram (#1) further states: “Is it not only the sage who knows when to advance and when to withdraw, when to persist and when to perish, without ever deviating from what is right? Is it not only the sage?” (其唯聖人乎！知進退、存亡，而不失其正者，其唯聖人乎) (B. Wang 2011, p. 7). “Without ever deviating from what is right” means acting in accordance with the Way of the Mean. If one only “knows” but lacks “rightness,” it descends into mere cunning and opportunism. If one clings to “rightness” without “knowledge,” it leads to pedantry and rigidity. Only the sage can balance both, integrating wisdom and virtue into one.

4.5. The Stability of “The Timely Mean” Principle, Situational Ethics, and Dialogue with Aristotelian “Phronesis”

As an ethical principle of action, the core of “the Timely Mean” lies in “mean” (zhong 中), which refers to “the Way of the Mean”. The Way of the Mean is a primary characteristic of virtue, and the Yizhuan regards “the Way of the Mean” as the highest form of virtue. Moral judgment is entirely determined by “the Way of the Mean”, and hitting “the Way of the Mean” in each specific situation is the fundamental aim of the principle of “the Timely Mean.” The stable moral benchmark preserved in “the Timely Mean” is the concept of “virtue” (de 德) in the Yizhuan. As the Xicizhuan states, “The rise of the Yi occurred in Middle Antiquity. Did its author harbor anxieties? Therefore, Lü 履 is the foundation of virtue. Qian 謙 is the handle of virtue. Fu 復 is the root of virtue. Heng 恒 is the steadfastness of virtue. Sun 損 is the refinement of virtue. Yi 益 is the abundance of virtue. Kun 困 is the discernment of virtue. Jing 井 is the ground of virtue. Xun 巽 is the regulation of virtue. […] Lü is for harmonious conduct; Qian is for regulating ritual; Fu is for self-knowledge; Heng is for unifying virtue; Sun is for distancing harm; Yi is for promoting benefit; Kun is for reducing resentment; Jing is for distinguishing righteousness; Xun is for exercising discretion” (易之興也，其於中古乎？作易者，其有憂患乎？是故履，德之基也。謙，德之柄也。複，德之本也。恒，德之固也。損，德之修也。益，德之裕也。困，德之辨也。井，德之地也。巽，德之制也。······履，以和行，谦，以制礼，复，以自知，恒，以一德，损，以远害，益，以兴利，困，以寡怨，井，以辨义，巽，以行权。) (B. Wang 2011, pp. 370–71). The text repeatedly emphasizes the significance of the nine hexagrams, such as Lü, in the cultivation of virtue, thus enabling people to understand that the constant principle to uphold in times of adversity is “virtue” (de 德).

The Yizhuan further posits that “humaneness” (ren 仁) is what human “virtue” ought to embody. A person of virtue is also a person of consummate persons. The Wenyanzhuan of the Qian 乾 hexagram (#1) states, “The noble person, embodying humaneness, is sufficient to lead others” (君子，體仁足以長人) (B. Wang 2011, p. 4). As the Xicizhuan says, “Being content with one’s circumstances and earnest in humaneness, one is thus able to love” (安土敦乎仁，故能愛) (B. Wang 2011, p. 345). The Shuoguazhuan says, “The way to establish humanity lies in humaneness and righteousness” (立人之道曰仁與義) (B. Wang 2011, p. 381). These statements indicate that to speak of “virtue” as “the Way of the Mean” is equivalent to saying that “humaneness,” as a fundamental virtue, is itself the Way of the Mean. From this, it is evident that the principle of “the Timely Mean” is fundamentally distinct from situationism in modern ethics. Situationism often dissolves stable moral character, arguing that actions are primarily driven by external situational factors. In contrast, the principle of “the Timely Mean” presupposes and is dedicated to cultivating an exceptionally stable and exemplary moral character. It holds that it is precisely by relying on “virtue” as the constant way, or “humaneness” as the fundamental virtue, that one can navigate complex and changing situations through the method of “exercising discretion”. In other words, “virtue” or “humaneness” is the immutable normative core, which the Confucian tradition terms the “constant norm” (jing 經). “Exercising discretion” (xingquan 行權) in particular circumstances must take the universal “constant norm” as its fundamental measure.

The principle of “the Timely Mean” emphasizes structural features such as practical wisdom, situational sensitivity, and moral cultivation, which bear a striking resemblance to Aristotle’s concept of “phronesis”. A dialogue between this principle and Aristotelian virtue ethics could contribute to global philosophical discourse. Regarding similarities, they can be summarized as follows: Both belong to the domain of virtue ethics, focusing on the agent’s virtues and the holistic life of a person rather than specific moral facts (Yu 2009, p. 236); Both recognize the concrete, immediate nature of practice, opposing the supremacy of universal rules and emphasizing the importance of specific contexts. They hold that the highest moral judgment cannot be reduced to the mechanical application of universal rules; Both regard the Way of the Mean as the fundamental principle of action, considering it essential to virtue. Aristotle states, “Virtue is a mean between two vices, that of excess and that of deficiency” (Aristotle 2003, p. 53). Similarly, the Yizhuan emphasizes the Way of the Mean as the highest virtue, asserting that only by achieving it can one cultivate an ideal moral character. For example, as the Xiangzhuan of the Jie 解 hexagram (#40) states, “The second nine line is steadfast and auspicious, for it attains the Way of the Mean” (九二貞吉，得中道也) (B. Wang 2011, p. 215).

However, there are also some fundamental differences between the two. Key differences include: First, the practical wisdom reflected in the concept of “the Timely Mean” in the Yizhuan is grounded in a cosmological-ethical framework of “unity between Heaven and humanity” (tianrenheyi 天人合一). It consistently derives “Human Dao” from the transcendent “the Will of Heaven” and “Heavenly Dao”, where human order is merely the realization of cosmic order. Thus, the Yizhuan’s temporal ethics presupposes a metaphysical foundation. In contrast, Aristotle sharply distinguishes practical wisdom (phronesis) from theoretical wisdom (sophia), grounding the former in human practical life rather than metaphysical insights into the cosmos. As such, phronesis lacks transcendence and is a form of secular wisdom (Shao 2021, p. 41). Second, Aristotle stands as the most outstanding defender of the autonomy and integrity of practice and practical wisdom. At the same time, however, he also holds that theoretical activity surpasses practical activity in terms of value and significance, and that the contemplative life is superior to the moral and political life. The happiness attained through theoretical wisdom and contemplation is of the highest order, while the happiness achieved through practical wisdom and virtue is of the second order. Practical wisdom faces the risk of degenerating into a mere intellectual capacity, which creates an inherent impulse within his philosophical spirit to devalue practical philosophy. In contrast, Confucian philosophy, as represented by the Yizhuan, consistently prioritizes lived practice, with practical wisdom remaining intrinsic to human political and moral life.

In summary, the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan takes “the Timely Mean” as its principle of action. The shift from “Heaven’s Timing” to “the Timely Mean” signifies the evolution of the temporal order used to organize social life into a value standard for judging the correctness of behavior. The concept of “the Timely Mean” within the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan represents wisdom concerning mutable phenomena. It enables practical deliberation tailored to diverse, concrete, and particular contexts, allowing for the flexible application of practical principles within changing circumstances to strategize the attainment of practical objectives. The mindset of “the Timely Mean” speaks of “mean” in relation to “time,” emphasizing how to appropriately grasp the Way of the Mean while moving with the times. This dialectical unity of historical specificity and normative values requires the practical subject to develop time-sensitive adaptive mechanisms within dynamic processes. “The Timely Mean” is inseparable from “Discretion” (quan 權). Rational exercise of discretion means the actor flexibly responds to specific situations, achieving a harmonious balance between the constant way and adaptability—this is “exercising discretion with Mean” (xingquan de zhong 行權得中).

5. How Should the Issue of Moral Luck Be Viewed Within the Temporal Ethical Framework of the Yizhuan

Moral luck refers to external contingencies beyond the agent’s control that profoundly influence our moral evaluation of the agent and their actions. The paradox raised by moral luck is that, on the one hand, we believe morality should be autonomous and free from the influence of luck, yet on the other hand, in actual moral judgments, we cannot entirely escape the impact of luck.4 Although the temporal ethical framework in the Yizhuan differs from the theories of moral luck proposed by Western ethicists such as Bernard Williams and Thomas Nagel in terms of cultural and historical contexts—spanning both Eastern-Western and ancient-modern divides—its reflections on “the Will of Heaven,” “Heaven’s Timing,” and “the Timely Mean” similarly engage with the relationship between luck and human agency. Thus, in a certain sense, it also touches upon the issues mentioned above. Using the framework of moral luck and moral responsibility, and drawing on the three classic cases proposed by Nagel concerning “resultant luck,” “circumstantial luck,” and “constitutive luck,” we can infer how the Yizhuan would respond to the ethical dilemmas embedded in these cases. This approach can provide a new perspective for interpreting the thought of the temporal ethical in the Yizhuan, while also facilitating cross-cultural dialogue with contemporary philosophical discussions on moral luck.

5.1. The Response of the Temporal Ethical Thought in the Yizhuan to “Resultant Luck”

A case related to “resultant luck” is as follows: If someone drinks excessively, and his car suddenly swerves onto the sidewalk, if there are no pedestrians on the road, he may consider himself morally lucky; if there are pedestrians, he will be held accountable for their deaths and will likely be prosecuted for manslaughter. If he does not injure anyone, even though his negligence is the same, his self-blame and the blame from others will undoubtedly be significantly reduced (Nagel 2004, p. 32). According to Nagel’s theory of moral luck, even if two drivers may have similar subjective faults, it is reasonable to make differentiated moral evaluations based on the actual outcomes. The driver who, due to “worse luck,” unfortunately hits and kills a pedestrian, causing serious consequences, should face stronger moral condemnation compared to another driver who causes no casualties. This view suggests that resultant luck indeed participates in the process of moral judgment, thereby influencing the determination of the degree of moral responsibility for both individuals. This challenges the Kantian view that “morality concerns only intentions,” because actions stemming from equally good intentions may lead to success or disaster due to contingent factors, thereby influencing our judgment of whether the agent is “moral” or “blameworthy.”

The temporal ethics framework of the Yizhuan addresses the issue of “resultant luck” as follows: “The Will of Heaven”, as a transcendent source, establishes a teleological and virtue-oriented foundation for the changes and transformations of all things in the cosmos—including contingent events. From this perspective, the “resultant luck” encountered in action is no longer a purely external or meaningless accident. Instead, it is regarded as part of the manifestation of the Will of Heaven within the concrete flow of time—a “given situation” that the agent must confront, comprehend, and respond to. The essence of moral practice lies not in lamenting or isolating such contingency but in how one positions and acts within a dynamic cosmic order that inherently encompasses chance. Therefore, the evaluation of an agent prioritizes not whether the outcome is “lucky” but whether the agent, in cognition and attitude, acknowledges and respects this cosmic order imbued with contingency. “Heaven’s Timing” emphasizes that cosmic laws and the fortune of timing manifest in specific contexts with their own rhythms and opportune moments. One of the core capacities of moral action is to discern and align with Heaven’s Timing. This demands from the agent a high degree of situational sensitivity, prudent judgment, and adaptive flexibility. The focus of moral evaluation shifts, in part, from “control over outcomes” to “consideration of timing and its grasp.”

From the perspective of “the Timely Mean”, the highest principle of moral practice is to “act in harmony with the times” and “adapt measures according to the timing.” This is neither rigid adherence to rules nor the ruthless pursuit of fixed goals at any cost. Rather, it involves making the most appropriate and balanced response in the present moment, based on a profound understanding of the direction of “the Will of Heaven” and the specific conditions of “Heaven’s Timing.” Moral character is cultivated through a series of practices embodying “the Timely Mean.”

Thus, the temporal ethics framework of the Yizhuan neither simply negates nor passively accepts the influence of resultant luck. Instead, by deeply integrating temporality and contextuality into moral practice, it reshapes our understanding of moral action and moral evaluation.

5.2. The Response of the Temporal Ethical Thought in the Yizhuan to “Circumstantial Luck”

A case related to “circumstantial luck” is as follows: Under Nazi rule, ordinary citizens had the opportunity to demonstrate courage and resist tyranny, yet they might also choose compliance or even complicity under coercion. In fact, most people choose the latter, a choice that should be morally condemned. Meanwhile, citizens of other countries did not live under the Nazi regime and thus never faced the same moral test, thereby avoiding the corresponding moral blame (Nagel 2004, p. 38). The core claim of “circumstantial luck” is that circumstances, as a factor of luck beyond an agent’s control, influence human behavior, making it difficult to exclude the interference of environmental factors when attributing moral responsibility. From an ethical perspective, “circumstantial luck” presents a profound dilemma: the historical era, social structures, cultural background, and even specific situations in which an agent finds themselves are largely contingent and not of their own choosing. Yet these factors fundamentally shape the moral challenges they face, the available options for action, and even the possibilities for character formation. This dilemma poses a challenge to traditional notions of moral responsibility and personal agency.

The temporal ethics framework of the Yizhuan addresses the issue of “circumstantial luck” as follows: “the Will of Heaven”, as the transcendent teleological source of virtue, provides the fundamental framework for understanding “circumstance.” From the perspective of the Yizhuan, the specific era and environment an individual encounters—such as order or chaos, wealth or poverty, favor or adversity—are not merely meaningless fragments of chance. They are situated within the cosmic life flow of “unceasing creativity is what is meant by Yi” (生生之謂易) (B. Wang 2011, p. 347) and represent one form through which the Will of Heaven manifests itself on the macro-historical and concrete social levels. Therefore, circumstance itself embodies the principle of “waning and waxing, fullness and emptiness” (消息盈虛) (B. Wang 2011, p. 127) inherent in the cosmic process. “The Will of Heaven” is not abstract; it precisely reveals its demands to the agent through concrete circumstances. An era of peace and prosperity and an era of turmoil and crisis highlight different emphases of “the Will of Heaven,” consequently assigning individuals different moral missions. Thus, circumstantial luck is transformed from an external, blind limitation into a unique entry point and specific stage for the individual to receive and respond to “the Will of Heaven.” In evaluating a person, the primary focus is not on “which era they were born into,” but on how they understand and respond to “the Will of Heaven” manifested by their era and environment.

“Heaven’s Timing” emphasizes insight into the fortune of the times and specific opportune moments, which is the core capability for dealing with circumstantial luck. The concept of Heaven’s Timing requires the agent to possess a profound historical sense and situational insight—that is, the ability to clearly recognize the overall trends, inherent contradictions, and developmental junctures of their own environment. This includes understanding what is possible in a given circumstance, what is inevitably constrained, and what new possibilities are emerging. Seizing “Heaven’s Timing” means: while clearly recognizing the constraints of the environment, seeking the action space and transformative opportunities contained within it, however slight they may be. As the Xicizhuan states, “The noble person stores his utensils within himself, awaiting the time to act” (君子藏器于身，待時而動) (B. Wang 2011, p. 367). The “utensils” are virtue and capability, and the “time” is the juncture, defined by the circumstance, where action becomes possible. Moral wisdom is manifested not in wasting one’s life on unchangeable circumstances, but in making the most appropriate and effective efforts within the limits allowed by the environment.

“The Timely Mean” emphasizes practicing the Way of the Mean within circumstantial constraints, thereby achieving a situational moral character. Moral accomplishment is not manifested in transcending circumstances or realizing abstract ideals, but precisely in being able to find and practice that appropriate the Way of the Mean in every concrete circumstance. The conception of responsibility guided by the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan does not demand that one be responsible for the environment itself, which is beyond one’s control, but rather that one be responsible for “how one responds within a specific environment.” The core of moral responsibility lies in: Did you, within the specific “Heaven’s Timing” you found yourself in, exert your utmost effort to discern, accord with, and creatively practice “the Timely Mean”? This shifts the focus of evaluation from “what environment you encountered” to “how you coexisted with and acted within your environment.”

Therefore, the Yizhuan does not seek to eliminate the contingency of circumstantial luck; instead, it transforms it into an integral component of moral practice and a specific arena for the cultivation of character. Consequently, circumstantial luck shifts from being a disruptive factor in moral evaluation to becoming an indispensable condition for manifesting moral depth and creativity.

5.3. The Response of the Temporal Ethical Thought in the Yizhuan to “Constitutive Luck”

A case related to “constitutive luck” is as follows: A person may be inherently greedy, envious, timid, cold-hearted, stingy, harsh, arrogant, or self-satisfied, yet through extreme effort of will, their conduct remains beyond reproach (Nagel 2004, p. 36). The core claim of “constitutive luck” is that if a person is morally condemned due to certain innate traits, this involves the factor of “constitutive luck,” making the moral evaluation of them seem unfair. “Constitutive luck” touches the very foundation of morality: who a person becomes—their character inclinations, emotional patterns, fundamental capacities, and even rational endowments—is largely shaped by contingent factors such as genetics, early experiences, and cultural influences, all of which precede their own choices. If the very material that constitutes the moral agent is itself a product of luck, then how solid is the foundation for the moral responsibility and achievement built upon this material?

The temporal ethics framework of the Yizhuan addresses the issue of “constitutive luck” as follows: “The Will of Heaven” emphasizes the creativity and purposiveness of “unceasing creativity” (shengsheng 生生). This implies that the initial traits endowed in a person are not fixed, immutable entities. Instead, they are imbued with a potential orientation and dynamic force for development toward the “good” (shan 善). From this perspective, the individual differences brought about by constitutive luck—such as a disposition toward firmness or gentleness, or variations in intellectual capacity—are not seen as a deterministic distribution of moral worth. Rather, they constitute the unique starting point and raw material for the fulfillment of the Will of Heaven. The Yizhuan acknowledges that the Will of Heaven endows individuals with initial conditions such as innate endowments and social origins, but it places greater emphasis on humans “reaching the Will of Heaven” (zhiyuming 至於命) through “exhausting principle and fulfilling nature” (qiongliJinxing 窮理盡性)—that is, fully realizing the potential bestowed by the Will of Heaven through moral practice. For example, the Xiangzhuan of the Sheng 升 hexagram (#46) emphasizes, “the superior person cultivates virtue in accordance with this, accumulating the small to achieve greatness” (君子以順德，積小以高大) (B. Wang 2011, p. 251). This means that regardless of one’s starting point, one can achieve transcendence through the accumulation of virtue.

“Heaven’s Timing” itself represents the ever-changing concrete circumstances. Constitutive luck continuously interacts with later circumstantial luck. Moral wisdom is reflected in the recognition of how one’s endowed traits are suited to or limited by a specific “Heaven’s Timing,” thereby enabling wise self-adjustment or the pursuit of complementary strengths. The character and abilities provided by constitutive luck are not inherently advantages or disadvantages in every situation. “Heaven’s Timing” demands that the agent possess the wisdom of “discerning the subtle signs” (zhiji 知幾)—that is, the insight to perceive the demands and risks of a specific situation and, accordingly, to mobilize or regulate one’s inherent tendencies. For example, a person naturally inclined to caution (possibly stemming from constitutive luck) must summon latent decisiveness within themselves when faced with a moment requiring resolution; a person with an impatient nature must cultivate restraint during a fortune that demands patience.

“The Timely Mean” illuminates how to concretely engage with one’s own constitutive luck within the flow of time. The practice of “the Timely Mean” necessarily encompasses the dimension of self-cultivation. As the Wenyanzhuan of the Qian 乾 hexagram (#1) states, “The noble person takes the perfection of virtue as their conduct” (君子以成德為行) (B. Wang 2011, p. 7) The achievement of virtue is precisely a process of shaping, transforming, and elevating the “self” that is given contingently, through continuous and unceasing practice. Personality is not a finished product cast once and for all by constitutive luck, but rather a generative process of “remaining vigilant and untiring all day long, advancing in step with the times” (終日乾乾，與時偕行) (B. Wang 2011, p. 6). It requires the practitioner to fully and appropriately realize, adjust, and expand their potential in responding to various instances of “Heaven’s timing,” aligning it with “the Way of the Mean.” Through the practice of self-cultivation, one ultimately ascends to harmonize with the virtuous purpose of “the Will of Heaven,” thereby realizing the ultimate meaning of being human.

Therefore, the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan, with its dynamic, generative, and contextual wisdom, offers a unique path for addressing the challenge of “constitutive luck”: it does not deny the existence of constitutive luck, but refuses to treat it as a static, deterministic endpoint. Instead, it situates constitutive luck within a continuous, temporally unfolding practical process of “fulfilling one’s nature and understanding the Will of Heaven” (jinxiangzhiming 盡性知命).

In summary, incorporating the issue of moral luck into the temporal ethical framework of “the Will of Heaven—Heaven’s Timing—the Timely Mean” from the Yizhuan is not a simple grafting of concepts, but a creative philosophical dialogue. Its primary philosophical significance lies in offering a new path for the contemporary Western debate on moral luck. The modern Western debate on moral luck often falls into a dilemma: either adhering to a Kantian “control principle” that seems disconnected from reality, or acknowledging the influence of luck, which appears to undermine moral responsibility. The temporal ethical framework of the Yizhuan does not insist on excluding luck from the moral domain or becoming anxious about it. Instead, it teaches us how to recognize, accept, and creatively transform luck within the flow of time. “The Will of Heaven” incorporates contingency into a grand, virtue-oriented cosmic narrative, providing it with a meaningful context. “Heaven’s Timing” requires us to keenly discern the manifestation of luck in specific situations (as fortune or opportunity), treating it as a key variable that must be considered in action. “The Timely Mean” then guides us in our actions to treat the conditions brought about by luck (whether favorable or unfavorable) as practical material for achieving appropriateness. Thus, luck is transformed from an external disturbance to be resisted into an internal situational element to be understood and addressed. As a profound philosophical dialogue, this collectively points toward an ethical mode of thinking that is closer to the real human condition—striving to practice virtue in the torrent of time filled with uncertainty.

6. Conclusions

Based on a creative textual interpretation of concepts such as “the Will of Heaven,” “Heaven’s Timing,” and “the Timely Mean” in the Yizhuan, proposing that it constructs an ethics centered on “time”, bridging the cosmic order and human affairs, as well as Heavenly Dao and Human Dao. This ethical paradigm falls within the category of virtue ethics and is primarily manifested as a three-tiered conceptual structure. First, “The Will of Heaven” serves as the transcendent foundation of temporal ethics, imbuing the ever-changing processes of cosmic existence with a teleological dimension of virtue. Only by discerning the transcendent origins underlying individual destiny can one transcend the influence of moral luck, thereby maximizing human moral agency and freedom. Through cultivating virtue, one aligns with Heaven and accepts one’s fate. Second, “Heaven’s Timing” as the manifestation of the Mandate of Heaven in the spatiotemporal context, emphasizes the recognition and compliance with timely destiny, fortune, and opportune moments. Propositions such as “following Heaven by adhering to its timing” (houtian er feng tianshi 後天而奉天時) and “It follows the order of Heaven and acts in accordance with the time” (chengtian er shixing 承天而時行) require the agent to possess both the wisdom to discern opportune moments and the intrinsic motivation to uphold ethical norms. Thus, within the flow of time, one continues the creative process of the Will of Heaven, elevating one’s own life and virtue, and ultimately attaining the supreme state of “unity between Heaven and humanity” (tianrenheyi 天人合一). Finally, “the Timely Mean” as the fundamental principle of time ethics means that, based on comprehending the Will of Heaven and grasping Heaven’s Timing, the action agent achieves a reasonable balance between universal principles and particular circumstances, as well as between value ideals and practical actions, thereby realizing the Way of the Mean. From this interpretive lens of temporal ethics, we discern a fundamental characteristic of the Yizhuan: its integration of cosmology, anthropology, and ethics into a unified whole, constructing a philosophical system that illuminates human affairs by discerning Heavenly Dao and establishes mutual resonance among Heaven, Earth, and Humanity.

Although through philosophical reconstruction we have brought to light the implicit temporal ethics within the Yizhuan, establishing an ethical framework that integrates moral values with cosmic structure—a core tenet of ancient Chinese philosophy, particularly Confucian thought—this does not preclude us from reflecting upon and critiquing this ancient ethical wisdom from the perspective of modern philosophy. Deriving normativity—such as ethical values, moral obligations, or social norms—from cosmic order (e.g., the Will of Heaven, natural laws, or cosmic teleology) may still face the challenge of the naturalistic fallacy. The so-called “naturalistic fallacy” essentially confuses the “nature of goodness” with “good things,” and refers to ethical theories that define goodness in terms of natural facts or supernatural realities (Wan 2023, p. 285). It warns against simply equating ethical values with certain natural or supernatural facts. However, within the temporal ethics of the Yizhuan, the progressive relationship of “the Will of Heaven → Heaven’s Timing → the Timely Mean” treats the description of cosmic structure and the prescriptive demands of moral obligation as an isomorphic, unified whole. It attempts to derive “reality” from “ought to be,” thereby elevating the aspiration of “ought to be” into a transcendent entity—the essence of this understanding lies in projecting certain characteristics of human moral life onto nature or supernatural reality, falling into the “naturalistic fallacy.” We must acknowledge that describing how the cosmos operates cannot directly prescribe how humans ought to act. On the one hand, the cosmic order itself requires interpretation. For instance, “nature” may refer to the survival of the fittest or to harmonious coexistence, and different cultures or schools of thought understand it in divergent ways. To treat a particular interpretation as the sole foundation for normativity is, in effect, to project specific values onto nature rather than to “discover” values within it. On the other hand, ancient cosmologies—such as the concept of the Will of Heaven or a teleological universe—have been dismantled by modern science. The laws of nature described by science, such as physical principles, are inherently purposeless and valueless, making it difficult for them to support ethical norms. In summary, within contemporary ethics, integrating a cosmic perspective still requires rational dialogue and value reflection rather than direct “derivation.” The normativity of ethics must be grounded in human reason, emotion, and practice, not in an immediate appeal to some transcendent or natural order.