An Introduction to the Typology of Idiomatic Phrases in the Literature of Chinese Chán Buddhism

Abstract

This article examines aspects of the typology and historical development of idiomatic phrases (chéngyǔ 成語) in premodern Chinese Chán Buddhist literature, situating them within broader debates on the origins of Chinese idioms. Challenging the prevalent view that idioms primarily derive from classical written sources, the study argues—based on a large-scale database analysis—that many idioms originated in the colloquial language of a respective period and eventually were incorporated into Chán texts, or were “invented” in the context of Chán literary creativity. Drawing on a corpus of approximately 3300 Chán-related idioms compiled from major lexicographical and textual sources, the authors propose a classification system based on the projected origins of these expressions. These include idioms derived from pre-Táng secular literature, Buddhist canonical scriptures, and those emerging directly within semi-colloquial Chán discourse, particularly in dialogic contexts such as recorded sayings and transmission texts. The study further traces the diachronic evolution, variant forms, and semantic shifts in selected idioms through detailed philological case studies. Methodologically, it combines quantitative database analysis with close textual comparison across historical sources. The findings highlight the significant role of Chán literature in shaping and transmitting idiomatic expressions, demonstrating that idioms are dynamic linguistic units reflecting both vernacular usage and literary adaptation.

1. Introduction

Chán Buddhist texts from the premodern period incorporate a considerable number of colloquial elements. They extensively use words and phrases drawn from the contemporary language of the respective period not found in texts written in Literary Chinese (wényánwén 文言文, LC), making these materials important sources for the study of the history of the development of the Chinese language, and specifically of the Chinese vocabulary. Chéngyǔ 成語 (“idiomatic phrases/idioms”), are expressions which had become conventionalized into short phrases in the course of time, eventually assuming a (more or less) fixed structure, and usually consisting of four characters. Within the corpus of Chinese medieval Chán literature—which extensively made use of the colloquial language of the respective period—there is an abundance of idiomatic phrases, among which the most numerous ones can be found in Chán transmission texts (chuándēng lù 傳燈錄), recorded sayings (yǔlù 語錄), poetry, gōng’àn 公案 (J. kōan) literature, and other genres used in the framework of Chán. Some of these idiomatic phrases originated from secular texts and Buddhist scriptures from earlier periods, while others were drawn from popular colloquial expressions of the respective time period, or invented in the context of Chán discourses and literary creativity.

The separation between LC and early layers of vernacular Chinese (zǎoqī báihuà 早期白話, VC) existed throughout the imperial period, and the gap between these two media increasingly widened between the Wèi 魏/Jìn 晉 dynasties up until the May Fourth Movement of the early 20th century. Due to the long history of many Chinese idiomatic phrases, some have preserved archaic meanings and grammatical structures. Many previous studies on Chinese idioms have emphasized the “archaic” and formalized features of certain idioms (for a more detailed discussion, see below), and assume that a Literary Chinese context of classical literature was a necessary precondition for the occurrence of these idioms. However, seen from a quantitative angle and based on the analysis of ca. 50,000 items collected in our database, this is not consistent with our observations. On the contrary, a large number of Chinese idioms rather seem to have originated from a “colloquial” context; concretely, they were drawn from the actual language use of a specific period.

In this paper, we attempt to provide a tentative classification based on the projected origin of the idioms collected in the database. We also provide a selection of examples for each category, tracing the origin and development of these idioms, as well as comparing their variant forms and their usage across different periods. Lastly, we also reflect on the influence of Chán texts on the general development of Chinese idioms.

1.1. The Features of Chinese Idiomatic Phrases

Generally, chéngyǔ 成語 refer to “established and commonly used” phrases, meaning that they are not only sayings from the past but have assumed a specific form and meaning in the course of time. For more than half a century, many studies and dictionaries on chéngyǔ have appeared, and various definitions can be found. Among them, the definition in the Hànyǔ dàcídiǎn 漢語大詞典 is concise but useful, stating that chéngyǔ “refer to set phrases that have been used for a long time, have a fixed structure, and have a specific meaning. Most are composed of four characters.”1 The definition emphasizes the “long-term usage” and the fixed structure of the mostly four-character phrases. These two features are also the most important for determining whether a phrase should be defined as chéngyǔ in specific corpora.

Regarding the origin of chéngyǔ, we encounter mainly two scholarly views: one emphasizes that chéngyǔ originated from written literary products, while the other locates their origin mostly in the actual language of the respective periods, concretely, popular sayings which circulated at specific periods and were absorbed into written media.

Those who believe that chéngyǔ mainly originated from written media are represented by scholars such as Huáng Bóróng 黃伯榮 and Liào Xùdōng 廖旭東 who state in their work Xiàndài hànyǔ 現代漢語: “Chéngyǔ are fixed phrases that have been conventionally used and have a written language color [...] They originated from the following sources: 1. myths and fables; 2. historical records; 3. poetic and literary phrases; 4. colloquialisms.”2 Similarly, Wēn Duānzhèng 溫端政states in his Hànyǔ yǔhuìxué jiàochēng 漢語語彙學教程: “Firstly, and most importantly, they originated from written literary products, most of them from ancient classical works [...]. In addition, some derive from ancient myths and legends [...], some come from ancient fables [...] some come from old historical records, [...] some come from famous ancient poems and literary phrases. Second, they contain many components of Classical Chinese, including fully semantic as well as function words. Third, in terms of the scope of circulation, they have been mostly used by scholars.”3

Those who emphasize that chéngyǔ mainly originated from the spoken language of a specific period include scholars such as Zhōu Zǔmó 周祖謨 who states in his Hànyǔ chéngyǔ gàishuō 漢語成語概說: “Chéngyǔ are fixed phrases or short sentences that people have been accustomed to by using them for many years [...] The structure of chéngyǔ is fixed, generally [consisting of] four characters. They are set entities that have been used for a long time and formed by convention, therefore they are called ‘chéngyǔ’.”4 Similarly, Jì Xiànlín 季羨林 writes in the preface to the Hànyǔ chéngyǔ yuánliú dàcídiǎn 漢語成語源流大辭典: “All allusions originate from ancient texts, but only a part of chéngyǔ do, and another part comes from the living language of the common people.”5 Furthermore, Zhāng Yǒngyán’s 張永言 Cíhuìxué jiǎnlùn 詞彙學簡論) states: “There are many sources of chéngyǔ. Most chéngyǔ come from [the language of] the common people [...] Chéngyǔ are the essence extracted from the people’s oral language and from famous works.”6 In the same work, he also quotes the British writer Logan Pearsall Smith:

It will have been seen how largely our figurative and idiomatic phrases are of popular origin, are drawn from the interests and occupations of humble life. The phrase-making, like the word-making, faculty belongs pre-eminently to the unlettered classes, and our best idioms, like our most vivid and living words, come to us, not from the library or the drawing-room or the “gay parterre,” but from the workshop, the kitchen and the farm-yard.

(Smith 1925)

In order to gain a better understanding of the origins of Chinese chéngyǔ, in the course of this long-term project we examined the 12,000 main entries and 38,000 sub-entries, a total of ca. 50,000 chéngyǔ, in Liú Jiéxiū’s 劉潔修 Hànyǔ chéngyǔ yuánliú dàcídiǎn 漢語成語源流大辭典.7 Based on this research, it was discovered that the idioms originating from sources written in LC, especially those extracted from the “classical literature,” actually do not constitute the majority of entries. Most Chinese idioms seem to have derived from the contemporary language of the respective period.

From a quantitative point of view, there are approximately 12,000 Chinese chéngyǔ and approximately 38,000 variant forms, with an average of four variant forms per chéngyǔ. However, there are exceptions, and some chéngyǔ have as many as twenty variant forms. The reason for the large number of variant forms is that “the original forms of many idioms, that is, the forms before they became chéngyǔ, were irregular, consisting of more characters than the later popular forms, or were broken into two phrases. In the process of gradually becoming chéngyǔ, there have been many variant forms, and all those should be clearly explained.”8 That is to say, the formation process of chéngyǔ can be in general described as follows: first, there was the need to express a certain meaning through a specific phrase. In the process of the actual use of the phrase in communication, various variant forms of expression were produced to express this meaning. These variant forms underwent long-term competition with each other, underwent modifications, and finally solidified into a form that became commonly used by the majority of the language community, a form which finally was integrated in products of the written language.

1.2. Research on Chán Idiomatic Phrases

Idioms found in Chán (Zen) Buddhist literature are a subset of Chinese idioms, belonging to the research domain of the history of the Chinese vocabulary. Premodern research on this Chán vocabulary can be traced back to the Zǔtíng shìyuàn 祖庭事苑 (Garden of Matters from the Patriarchal Court), compiled in 1108 by Mù’ān Shànqīng 睦庵善卿 (n.d.) of the Northern Sòng Dynasty (960–1127), which includes over 2400 entries. This text provides simple phonetic annotations in the form of fǎnqiè 反切 (i.e., the reading is indicated by two characters, the first defining the initial and the second the rhyme part) and definitions for general vocabulary items, as well as offering detailed explanations and tracing the origins of proper names, technical terms, and idioms.

In fascicle 6 of the Chánlín fāngyǔ 禪林方語 (Regional Words of the Chán Forest), included in the Réntiān yǎnmù 人天眼目 (The Eye of Men and Gods; preface dated to 1188), compiled by Zhìzhào 智昭 (n.d.) of the Southern Sòng Dynasty, 78 four-character idioms, in addition to longer colloquial expressions, are listed.9

The Chányuàn méngqiú yáolín 禪苑蒙求瑤林 (Jade Grove of the Primer of the Chán Garden),10 compiled by Cuòān Zhìmíng 錯庵志明 (n.d.)11 of the Jīn 金 dynasty (1115–1234) uses a four-character phrase as the title for each of its 562 sections. Each entry is followed by a gōng’àn 公案 (J. kōan) or allusion as a reference for Chán beginning students. The annotations by Xuětáng Déjiàn 雪堂德諫 (n.d.), added during the Yuán 元dynasty (1271–1368), indicate the source of the allusion or the lineage relationship. Most of the four-character phrases consist of Chán Buddhist idioms.

The Wànsòng lǎorén píngchāng Tiāntóng Jué héshàng sònggǔ Cóngróng ān lù 萬松老人評唱天童覺和尚頌古從容庵錄 (Equanimity Hermitage Record: Old Man Wànsòngʼs Evaluations of Preceptor Tiāntóng Juéʼs Versed Comments on Old Cases) is a text of the Cáodòng 曹洞 school, with verse commentaries (sònggǔ 頌古) added by Hóngzhì Zhèngjué 宏智正覺 (1091–1157) of the Sòng dynasty (960–1279) and critical annotations (píngchāng 評唱) added by Wànsōng Xíngxiù 萬松行秀 in 1224. It includes 100 gōng’àn, and the title of each consists of a four-character idiom.12

During the Edo period (1603–1868) in Japan, the Chán/Zen language dictionaries and related works by the monk-scholar Mujaku Dōchū 無著道忠 (1653–1745) explain a large number of colloquial terms, including many idioms, such as approximately ca. 150 phrases in the Kattō gogen 葛藤語箋 (Glossary of Entangled Language),13 approximately 370 idioms in the Zenrin hōgo 禪林方語 (Chán Forest Colloquialisms/Regional Words),14 and approximately 170 idioms in the Zenrin kuketsu benbyō 禪林句集辨苗 (Distinguishing Shoots of Chán Forest Phrases),15 etc.

During the Taishō period (1912–1926), the Zengaku jiten 禪學辭典 (Dictionary of Zen Studies), compiled in Jinbō and Andō ([1915] 1976), includes approximately 20,000 entries related to Chán/Zen studies, such as gōng’àn, personal and place names, Buddhist terminology, temples, and texts, including approximately 2000 idiomatic phrases. Another dictionary published in the same year, the Zenshū jiten 禪宗辭典 (Dictionary of the Zen School) by Yamada Kōdō 山田孝道 (Yamada 1915) includes more than 10,000 entries related to Zen Buddhism, such as stories, set phrases, colloquialisms, rituals, eminent monks, temples, text titles, place names, etc., including approximately 1000 idioms. In the second part of the 20th century, the Zengaku daijiten 禪學大辭典 (Comprehensive dictionary of Zen Studies), published by Sakurai (1978), was a revised and collated edition of the previous two dictionaries, taking more than twenty years to complete, and containing more than 30,000 vocabulary items. Another important Japanese dictionary containing Chán/Zen colloquialisms and idioms is the Zengo jiten 禪語辭典 (Dictionary of the Zen language), published by Koga Hidehiko 古賀英彥 in 1991 (Koga 1991).

An early modern Chinese Buddhist dictionary is the Fóxué dàcídiǎn 佛學大辭典 (A comprehensive dictionary of Buddhism), published by Dīng ([1921] 1991), which is based on the Bukkyō daijiten 佛教大辭典 (Dictionary of Buddhism), compiled by Oda (1917) and containing more than 30,000 entries. Currently, the largest Chinese Buddhist dictionary is the Fóguāng dàcídiǎn 佛光大辭典 (Fóguāng comprehensive Buddhist dictionary), first published by Cíyí 慈怡 in 1988, containing more than 22,000 entries, including aspects such as “general Buddhist terminology, personal and place names, temples and monasteries, sectarian doctrines, canonical texts, ritual implements, art and architecture, anecdotes and gōng’àn.” The most commendable aspect of this dictionary is that “for every matter and object, the textual source is clearly stated,”16 which greatly helps readers consult relevant materials and understand the meaning of Buddhist terms.

Chinese dictionaries specifically addressing idiomatic phrases used in Buddhist contexts, include the Chéngyǔ yǔ fójiào 成語與佛教 (Idioms and Buddhism), published by Zhū Ruìwén 朱瑞玟 in 1989 and introducing a relatively small number of approximately 200 idioms related to Buddhist culture. The Fójiào chéngyǔ 佛教成語 (Buddhist idioms), published by the same author in 2003, is an expanded edition of the above dictionary, collecting and explaining more than 500 idiomatic phrases, divided into 14 sections.

Yuán Bīn’s 袁賓 is a leading scholar in the semantics of Chán texts, and his publications include the Chánzōng zhùzuò cíyǔ huìshì 禪宗著作詞語匯釋 (Collected explanations of words and phrases in Chán writings, 1990), Chánzōng cídiǎn 禪宗詞典 (Dictionary of the Chán School, 1994), and Chánzōng dàcídiǎn 禪宗大詞典 (Comprehensive dictionary of the Chán School, 2010). The Chánzōng dàcídiǎn builds upon the earlier Chánzōng cídiǎn, with significant additions and modifications, collecting and explaining colloquial words and phrases, technical terms, gōng’àn terminology, allusions, idioms, proverbs, etc., in addition to references to monastics, temple and pagoda names, Buddhist mountains, and Buddhist texts, totaling more than 8000 entries. Among them, there are approximately 1000 idiomatic Chán phrases.

1.3. A Database of Chán Idiomatic Phrases

In order to establish a firm foundation of primary and secondary sources for the study of Chán Buddhist idioms, a large database was compiled during the last six years. In that process, 12,000 idioms from the Hànyǔ chéngyǔ yuánliú dàcídiǎn 漢語成語源流大辭典 were analyzed, and ca. 750 entries related to Chán literature extracted (accounting for 6.25% of the total number of entries in this dictionary). Based on this, we compared these entries with their categorizations, definitions, and references in the Chánxué cídiǎn 禪學辭典, Chánzōng cídiǎn, Chánlín míngjù cídiǎn 禪林名句辭典 (Dictionary of famous phrases of the Chán forest), Chányǔ cídiǎn 禪語辭典, and Chánzōng dàcídiǎn. In addition, the Fóxué dàcídiǎn 佛學大辭典 (Encyclopedia of Buddhist Studies), Chánxué dàcídiǎn 禪學大辭典 (Encyclopedia of Chán Studies), and the Fóguāng dàcídiǎn were consulted and additional Chán related phrases extracted, totaling over 3300 idioms.

Our Chán Idioms Database (CID) is structured in the following way:

(a)

Arrangement of main entries/Chán phrase (詞條主條目): The collected 3300 idioms are arranged in alphabetical order in order to facilitate retrieval.

(b)

Explanation of the meaning (解釋語意): First, the idiom’s literal meaning is explained, followed by its metaphorical and/or extended meanings. If an idiom in general does not convey its literal meaning in Chán texts, only the metaphorical meaning is provided. If an idiom is not used with extended meanings, only the literal meaning is explained. A few idioms are marked as “difficult to interpret” (禪語難解), meaning that their interpretation has to await further research.

(c)

Related entries/phrases (相關詞條): Chán literature frequently features a flexible and varied use of idiomatic expressions, including the addition and removal of characters, variations in the character forms, as well as changes pertaining to the sequence of characters. In the database, phrases which show variation but convey a similar meaning, are marked as related to each other. This is an important feature which helps to determine the degree of variation, or changes which have taken place in the diachronic or regional development of idiomatic phrases.

(d)

Example Sentences (例句): For each Chán phrase, example sentences are provided. The first example sentence attempts to reflect the earliest use of a phrase, while additional examples follow a chronological sequence. If an idiom has several variants, an example sentence is provided for each.

(e)

Classification of sources (溯源分類): Each idiom is classified based on its source as follows:

○

Over 380 idioms (11%) are traced to earlier non-Buddhist literature, mainly idioms originating from various literary texts predating the Táng and Sòng dynasties.

○

Over 680 idioms (20%) are traced to Buddhist canonical texts, and their meanings is closely related to the meanings in these scriptures.

○

Over 2000 (60%) idioms appear for the first time in Chán Buddhist semi-colloquial texts. Most of them are included in the linguistic and rhetorical structure of dialogues (usually, between a Chán master and a student, or between Chán masters).

○

About 200 idioms (8%) can be both traced to Chán literature, but are also used in non-Buddhist texts of the same period. Most of these items can be dated to the Sòng dynasty and a considerable number is still circulating in present times.

(f)

Notes (說明): For idioms with complex origins and/or meanings, explanations are added, as well as references to important secondary sources. In case there are significant changes in the diachronic development of an idiom, this is likewise commented on.

For our discussion of Chán idiomatic phrases in this paper, the classification which is provided in (e) is most significant. Below, we will discuss each of the four groups listed under (e) in greater detail and provide representative examples. Note that the number of examples provided in each group does not proportionally reflect their frequency, since we wanted to include at least two examples for each group or sub-group.

2. Idioms Originating Before the Táng and Sòng Dynasties

About 1000 idioms appearing in Chán literature and registered in the database derive from texts predating the Táng Dynasty, accounting for 31% of the total database entries. Some of these idioms had long been standardized as fixed phrases and were commonly used, while others, although not yet fully standardized, have core meanings traceable to literature before the Táng. In terms of a convenient typology in the framework of this study, they are grouped into the following sub-types, idioms originating from “secular”, i.e., non-Buddhist literature, and those deriving from Buddhist canonical scriptures.

2.1. Idioms Originating from Secular Literature Before the Táng and Sòng Dynasties

Roughly, this group comprises mainly four-character idioms which were already well established and integrated in non-Buddhist texts; secondly, common sayings and proverbs cited in these texts; thirdly, idioms which formed based on phrases used in these texts (i.e., key passages of these texts were reused in later literature and gradually became set phrases with specific meanings). The total count of these three groups of idioms classified as deriving from “secular literature” is about 380, comprising roughly 11% of the total of database entries.

(1) Chà qiáng rén yì  差強人意)/chà kě rén yì   差可人意

The phrase chà kě rén yì 差可人意 found in Chán texts originates from chà qiáng rén yì 差強人意 ‘strongly invigorate people’s minds’17 which can be traced to the Dōng guàn Hàn jì 東觀漢記18 (Hàn Records of the Eastern Lodge Domain), fascicle 10 (chapter Wú Hàn zhuàn 吳漢傳):

The troops were not in a good condition, and the military camp was incomplete. [The general Wú] Hàn frequently repaired his bows and spears by himself, inspected his troops (lit. ‘infantry and cavalry’), and incited his officials and soldiers. When the superior (shàng 上 ‘lit. (the one) above > the emperor’) ordered someone to inspect how Lord Wú was doing, after his return he reported he was currently producing war equipment. The emperor frequently remarked: “Lord Wú strongly strengthens the resolve of the people; powerfully/majestically19 like an enemy state (i.e., a formidable enemy).”

兵有不利，軍營不完，（吳）漢常獨繕弓矢，閱其兵馬，激揚吏士。上時令人視吳公何為，還言方作戰攻具，上常曰：‘吳公差強人意，隱若一敵國矣。’

The same phrase can be found in a minor variation in the Hòu Hàn shū 後漢書 (Book of the Later Hàn), fascicle 18 (chapter Wú Gài Chén Zàng lièzhuàn 吳蓋陳臧列傳): “吳公差彊人意，隱若一敵國矣！”. The original meaning of the phrase indicates a person who is able to invigorate or motivate, and thereby strengthen the resolve of people.20 Whereas in the earlier sources the two phrases appeared in combination, in fascicle 25 of the Zhōu shū 周書 (Book of the Zhōu,21 chapter Lǐ Yuǎn zhuàn 李遠傳), the phrase 差強人意 is used independently: “太祖喜曰：‘李萬歲所言，差強人意。’”

In the Sòng dynasty, the variation shèn qiáng rén yì 甚強人意 (‘extremely/strongly inspiring the mind of people’) appeared, as exemplified in the fascicle 28 of the Huì’ān xiānsheng Zhū Wéngōng wénjí 晦庵先生朱文公文集22 (chapter Yǔ Lǐchéng fù shū 與李誠父書): “Hú [Xiàn],23 when discussing a matter, always conformed to the general verdict [of the people], greatly inspiring the mind of the people.” (胡公論事皆合公論，甚彊人意。) During the Míng dynasty, the variation yóu qiáng rén yì 尤强人意 emerged.24

Probably somewhen during the Sòng dynasty, the phrase developed an extended meaning which was frequently used in later periods: ‘overall/basically being able to make people satisfied/pleased’. The earliest example mostly probably can be traced to fascicle 48 of the Huì’ān xiānsheng Zhū Wéngōng wénjí: “Fèng Cháng greatly inspired the resolve of the people, but it feels like it lacks careful consideration; truly regretting to have rushed before, not being able to very slowly [deal with it].” (奉常差強人意，但覺亦欠子細商量，甚恨前此匆匆，不能甚欵也。)

This meaning is also predominant in Chán texts, as for example in fascicle 16 of the Yuánwù Fóguǒ Chánshī yǔlù 圓悟佛果禪師語錄: “You should generate a mind and liver of cast iron (i.e., a very resolute mindset), and the ability to kill somebody without blinking an eye; only then you will be able to briefly reveal the standards of conduct.25 Esteeming the life of wisdom (i.e., following the Buddhist path) extending to the indefinite (i.e., is without end) is just barely satisfactory (應須生鐵鑄就心肝，殺人不眨眼手段，乃可略露風規。貴慧命流於無窮，差可人意耳。; CBETA, T47, no. 1997, p. 788, a3–5).

When chā qiáng rén yì 差強人意 expresses the meaning of ‘being very inspiring; invigorate others’, variations include shèn qiáng rén yì 甚強人意and yóu qiáng rén yì 尤強人意, with yóu 尤 ‘outstanding’ having a similar meaning as the intensifier shèn 甚. From the Sòng dynasty onwards, the latter form of the phrase became the most common thereafter, including Chán Buddhist literature. In a Chán context, the phrase also implies that achieving a (religious) goal is very difficult and the path to it hardly bearable, underscoring the high standards needed to follow it.

(2) Fāng ruì yuán záo   方枘圓鑿/fāng mù dòu yuán kǒng   方木逗圓孔/fāng mù yuán kǒng   方木圓孔

The expression fāng mù dòu yuán kǒng 方木逗圓孔 (lit. ‘square wood matching a round hole’) is frequently found in Chán Buddhist literature. An early example appears in fascicle 13 of the mid-10th century Zǔtáng jí 祖堂集 (Collection from the Patriarchal Hall):

The master asked a monk: ‘Have you eaten?’ The monk replied: ‘I have eaten.’ The master said: ‘Among the host and guest, which one has the longest eyes?’ The monk replied: ‘Please, Master, examine [it yourself]!’ The master said: ‘[A piece of] square wood matches a round hole.’ (師問僧：‘喫飯也未？’對云：‘喫飯了也。’師云：‘賓主二家，阿那個眼目最長？’對云：‘請師鑒。’師云：‘方木逗於圓孔。’; CBETA, B25, no. 144, p. 549, b6–8).

The original expression is fāng ruì yuán záo 方枘圓鑿 (lit., ‘square handle round mortise’), which derives from fascicle 11 of the Wénzǐ 文子 (p. 473),26 Chapter Shàng Yì 上義 (On Righteousness):

“Those who study nowadays follow the occupation of their predecessors, take half of their writings, and safeguard their literary methods, wishing to govern based on them. Without those, they are unable to govern. This is like holding a square tenon and inserting it into a round mortise; desiring to have them fit appropriately is indeed difficult.” (今為學者，循先襲業，握篇籍，守文法，欲以為治。非此不治，猶持方枘而內圓鑿也，欲得宜適亦難矣。).

This idiom can also be written as huán záo fāng ruì 圜鑿方枘 (lit. ‘round mortise square tenon/handle’), found in the Chapter Jiǔ Biàn 九辯 (Nine Disputes) of the Sòng dynasty Chǔcí bǔzhù 楚辭補注 (Supplemental Annotations of the Songs of Chǔ; p. 189): “A round mortise and a square tenon–alas-I certainly know that they will be misaligned and difficult to insert.” (圜鑿而方枘兮，吾固知其齟齬而難入). In addition, there are variations such as fāng dǐ yuán gài 方底圓蓋 (lit. ‘square bottom round lid’), jǔ ruì guī záo 矩枘規鑿 (lit. ‘square tenon regulate mortise’), ruì záo fāng yuán 枘鑿方圓 (lit. ‘tenon mortise square round’), záo yuán ruì fāng 鑿圓枘方 (lit. ‘mortise round tenon square’), and záo ruì yuán fāng 鑿枘圓方 (‘mortise tenon round square’), all of which can be used to express incompatibility and incongruity.

The fāng mù yuán kǒng 方木圓孔 (lit. ‘square wood round hole’) found in Chán texts is another variant rendering of fāng ruì yuán záo 方枘圓鑿, as in fascicle 17 of the early Sòng dynasty Jǐngdé chuán dēng lù 景德傳燈錄 (Record of the Transmission of the Lamp of the Jǐngdé Era): “If you take a [piece of] square wood to match it with a round hole, how much error/mismatch will there be?” (如將方木逗圓孔，多少差訛; CBETA, T51, no. 2076, p. 335, c23). It is also rendered as yuán mù dòu yú fāng kǒng 圓木逗於方孔 (‘matching a round [piece of] wood with a square hole’), as in fascicle 26 of the Jiātài pǔ dēng lù 嘉泰普燈錄 (Comprehensive Record of the Lamp of the Jiātài era): “Xiāngshān speaks in such a way, much like using [a piece of] round wood to match (i.e., insert into) a square hole.” (香山恁麼說話，大似以圓木逗於方孔。; CBETA, X79, no. 1559, p. 456, a10–11//Z 2B:10, p. 187, a11–12//R137, p. 373, a11–12).

In Chán texts, the colloquial word dòu 逗 often expresses the meaning of connecting and matching something, until now widely used in the Southwestern Mandarin dialect region.27 This is a good example of how idiomatic phrases were transformed in the context of their usage in Chán texts to a more colloquial level through the usage of dialect/local expressions.28

2.2. Idioms Originating from Chinese Buddhist Scriptures

“Buddhist scriptures” refer here to Chinese Buddhist texts dating from the Eastern Hàn dynasty onward, encompassing both translations of Indian Buddhist scriptures and texts composed in China. Idioms originating from Buddhist scriptures are either extracted from Buddhist stories and legends, reflect Buddhist doctrines and practices, constitute phrases with specialized nouns and terms in Buddhist texts, incorporate Buddhist-related allusions, or describe certain customs deriving from Indian Buddhism. In our database, approximately 680 idioms originate from Buddhist scriptures, accounting for 20% of the total items recorded.

(3) Shuǐ zhōng zhuō yuè 水中捉月/bō zhōng qǔ yuè 波中取月/yuánhóu tàn shuǐ yuè 猿猴探水月/bō zhōng zhuō yuè 波中捉月

This expression also appears as hǎi dǐ lāo yuè 海底撈月 (‘scooping the moon from the bottom of the sea’), hǎi zhōng lāo yuè 海中撈月 (‘scooping the moon from the sea’), shuǐ zhōng lāo yuè 水中撈月 (‘scooping the moon from the water’), shuǐ dǐ lāo yuè 水底撈月 (‘scooping the moon from the bottom of the water’), shuǐ dǐ mō yuè 水底摸月 (‘touching the moon at the bottom of the water’), shuǐ zhōng zhuō yuè 水中捉月 (‘grasping the moon in the water’), yuánhóu qǔ yuè 猿猴取月 (‘monkeys grasping the moon’), etc. Although the wording differs slightly, the meaning is the same: they all refer to the foolish act of exerting one’s efforts in vain. Later, it was used as a metaphor for ordinary people regarding the false as real, causing them to fall into vexation.

These idioms can all be traced back to the story of the “Five Hundred Monkeys Scooping the Moon” in the Móhē sēngqílǜ 摩訶僧祇律 (Skt. Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya), fascicle 7:

The Buddha told the bhikshus: “In the past, there was a city called Vārāṇasī, and a country called Kāśī. In a secluded place, there were five hundred monkeys roaming in the forest, reaching a nìjùlǜ 尼俱律 (Skt. Niyagrodha, ‘Banyan’) tree. Under the tree there was a well, and in the well appeared the reflection of the moon. At that time, the leader of the monkeys saw the moon’s reflection and told his companions, ‘The moon has died today and fallen into the well; we should take it out together, lest the world be in darkness for a long night.’ They discussed together, saying, ‘How can we take it out?’ At that time, the leader of the monkeys said, ‘I know the way to take it out; I will hold onto the branch of the tree, you hold onto my tail, connecting one after another, and then we can take it out.’ At that time, the monkeys immediately did as their leader said, holding onto each other one after another. Before they reached the water, the weight of the connected monkeys was too much, the branch of the tree was weak and broke, and all the monkeys fell into the water of the well.”

五百獼猴撈月“事：”佛告諸比丘：‘過去世時，有城名波羅奈，國名伽尸，於空閑處有五百獼猴，遊行林中，到一尼俱律樹。樹下有井，井中有月影現。時獼猴主見是月影，語諸伴言：‘月今日死，落在井中，當共出之，莫令世間長夜闇冥。’共作議言：‘云何能出？’時獼猴主言：‘我知出法，我捉樹枝，汝捉我尾，展轉相連，乃可出之。’時諸獼猴即如主語，展轉相捉，小未至水，連獼猴重，樹弱枝折，一切獼猴墮井水中。’

(CBETA, T22, no. 1425, p. 284, a11–20)

This narrative of the “monkeys scooping the moon” was originally a humorous way of criticizing Devadatta and the group of six bhikṣus; later, the meaning of the phrase generalized and became an idiom used to refer to fruitless and nonsensical behavior.

An example of the use of shuǐ zhōng zhuō yuè 水中捉月 in the Táng Dynasty is found in Yǒngjiā zhèngdào gē 永嘉證道歌29 (Yǒngjiā’s Song of Enlightenment), fascicle 1: “Looking at the form in the mirror is not difficult, but how can one contend to grasp the moon in the water?” (鏡裏看形見不難，水中捉月爭拈得。; CBETA, T48, no. 2014, p. 395, c24–25) An example of its use in the Sòng Dynasty can be found in fascicle 17 of Wǔdēng huìyuán: “Extensively seeking the meaning of texts is like seeking a form inside the mirror. Ceasing thoughts to contemplate emptiness is like grasping the moon in the water.” (廣尋文義，鏡裏求形。息念觀空，水中捉月。; CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 359, a23//Z 2B:11, p. 333, a7//R138, p. 665, a7).

The expression is also rendered as yuánhóu tàn shuǐ yuè 猿猴探水月 (‘monkeys searching for the moon in the water’), as in fascicle 20 of Wǔdēng huìyuán 五燈會元: “The patriarchs of the six generations, searching for the nonexistent within the existent, [were like] monkeys searching for the moon in the water.” (六代祖師，有裏尋無，猿猴探水月。; CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 439, c24–p. 440, a1//Z 2B:11, p. 413, c14–15//R138, p. 826, a14–15). It is also written as bō zhōng qǔ yuè 波中取月 (‘grasping the moon in the waves’), as in Jǐngdé chuán dēng lù, fascicle 20: “Those who learn the words [of scriptures] and do not themselves examine whether their own knowledge is not correct, wanting to pluck flowers in the sky and grasp the moon in the waves; how can they be able to grasp the power of their mind?” (若是學語之輩不自省已知非直，欲向空裏采華波中取月，還著得心力麼。; CBETA, T51, no. 2076, p. 367, b16–18). The phrase also appears in the form of bō zhōng zhuō yuè 波中捉月 (‘grasping the moon in the waves’), as in Wǔdēng huìyuán, fascicle 18: “If one is an awakened one, one will never pluck flowers in the sky or grasp the moon in the waves, idly toiling the power of the mind.” (若是箇惺惺底，終不向空裏採華。波中捉月，謾勞心力。CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 375, b24–c1//Z 2B:11, p. 349, b14–15//R138, p. 697, b14–15)

In terms of the lexical form, hǎi dǐ lāo yuè 海底撈月 (‘scooping the moon from the bottom of the sea’) and shuǐ zhōng lāo yuè 水中撈月 (‘scooping the moon in the water’) are used with high frequency, while yuánhóu lāo yuè 猿猴撈月 (‘monkeys scooping the moon’) is used less often. There are two possible reasons for this: firstly, shuǐ zhōng lāo yuè does not feature a definite subject in the phrase and can as such be easier imbedded in a sentence which already has a subject, forming a predicate to this subject. In order to fit the structure of the sentence they are embedded in, some idioms can be reduced to a minimal form of two characters, such as [Jīngwèi] tián hǎi [精衛]填海 (‘[Jīngwèi] filling the ocean) and [Cháng’é] bēn yuè [嫦娥]奔月 ([‘Cháng’é] flying to the moon’), without affecting the meaning of the original four-character phrase. Secondly, shuǐ zhōng lāo yuè specifies that the object being scooped is the moon’s reflection in the water, which further highlights the meaning of spending effort in vain to pursue an illusory goal. By contrast, the variation yuánhóu lāo yuè already incorporates an internal subject and omits the mention of the key element “water” in the metaphor, and as such has less expressive power.

(4) Huáng yè zhǐ tí   黃葉止啼/kōng quán huáng yè   空拳黃葉

Other examples of Chán literature featuring idioms deriving from canonical Buddhist texts are the phrases kōng quán huáng yè 空拳黃葉 (lit. ‘empty fist yellow leaves’) and huáng yè zhǐ tí 黃葉止啼 (‘yellow leaves stop crying’). Huáng yè 黃葉 (‘yellow leaves’) originates from the Northern version of the Mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra translation, fascicle 20: “Furthermore, when somebody is an ‘infant-style’ practitioner,30 like those infants when they are crying, their parents then take yellow leaves from the poplar tree and say to them, ‘Don’t cry, don’t cry, I will give you [pieces of] gold.’ After the infant has seen [the yellow leaves], it will generate the thought of real gold, and subsequently stop crying. However, these poplar leaves are in reality not gold.” (又嬰兒行者，如彼嬰兒啼哭之時，父母即以楊樹黃葉，而語之言：‘莫啼莫啼，我與汝金。’嬰兒見已生真金想，便止不啼，然此楊葉實非金也。; CBETA, T12, no. 374, p. 485, c10–13). In this context, the yellow leaves of the poplar tree are used as a metaphor for the Buddha’s and bodhisattvas’ skillful means,31 able to cease the suffering of sentient beings.

The expression kōng quán 空拳 (‘empty fist’) originates from the Pǔyào jīng 普曜經 (Skt. Lalitavistara sūtra), fascicle 4: “It is impossible to uphold for long this karma of deception, just like deceiving an infant with an empty fist.” (不可久保是誑惑業，猶如空拳欺於嬰孩。; CBETA, T03, no. 186, p. 506, a9–10). This is likewise a metaphor for the skillful means performed by the Buddha or a bodhisattva to liberate sentient beings.

In the Táng Dynasty, the key words of the above idioms were for the first time combined into a new idiom, kōng quán huáng yè 空拳黃葉 ‘empty fist yellow leaves’ and subsequently solidified into a fixed phrase, such as in the Zhènzhōu Línjì Huìzhào Chánshī yǔlù 鎮州臨濟慧照禪師語錄 (The Recorded Saying of Chán Master Línjì Huìzhào from Zhènzhōu), fascicle 1: “Clearly knowing that it is a basic method (lit. ‘method of establishing’), relying on that it spreads throughout the country, ‘empty fist yellow leaves’ is used to deceive children.” (明知是建立之法，依通國土，空拳黃葉，用誑小兒; CBETA, T47, no. 1985, p. 499, b5–6) Another example can be found in Zǔtáng jí, fascicle 16: “Preceptor Jiāngxī said that ‘this very mind is the Buddha’, and that is just a temporary statement, to stop the disease of wildly running around outside in search [of the truth], [this refers to] ‘empty fist yellow leaves’, words to stop [someone’s] crying.” (江西和尚說‘即心即佛’，且是一時間語，是止向外馳求病，空拳黃葉，止啼之詞。CBETA, B25, no. 144, p. 595, a14–b2). The idiom is also rendered as huáng yè zhǐ tí 黃葉止啼 (lit. ‘yellow leaves stop crying’), as in Zǔtáng jí, fascicle 18: “Therefore, to provisionally designate skillful means snatches away the coarse consciousness32 of all of you from countless kalpas, like using yellow leaves to stop [a child from] crying.” (所以假設方便，奪汝諸人塵劫來麤識，如將黃葉止啼。; CBETA, B25, no. 144, p. 637, a14–b1). The usage of the idiom was continued in Sòng dynasty Chán texts, such as the Wǔdēng huìyuán, fascicle 9: “Therefore, to provisionally designate skillful means snatches away your coarse consciousness. Like using yellow leaves to stop [a child from] crying, how can that be the correct place (i.e., proper situation)?”33 (所以假設方便，奪汝麤識。如將黃葉止啼，有甚麼是處？; CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 189, a20–21//Z 2B:11, p. 162, a14–15//R138, p. 323, a14–15).

Examples of usage in the Míng and Qīng dynasties include the Língfēng Ǒuyì dàshī zōnglùn, fascicle 6: “If you still cannot avoid weeping and laughing according to [the use of] ‘empty fist yellow leaves’, how can you induce (i.e., teach/guide) others?” (儻猶未免隨空拳黃葉而泣笑，其可以誘他乎？; CBETA, J36, no. B348, p. 354, c18–19). In the Qīng dynasty Yǐnyuán Chánshī yǔlù 隱元禪師語錄 (Chán Master Yīnyuán’s Recorded Sayings), fascicle 12, there is the following passage: “Yesterday, due to the monks of the temple requesting teachings, it was just a temporary talk of ‘yellow leaves to stop [children from] crying’, [but] what real Dharma is there?” (昨因寺僧啟請，乃一時黃葉止啼之譚，曷有實法？; CBETA, J27, no. B193, p. 282, c27)

The idioms 黃葉止啼 and 空拳黃葉 and their variations are good examples of how key phrases were extracted from narratives in canonical scriptures, and were assigned a specific meaning in the rhetorical structure of Chán texts, frequently referring to temporary or provisional teachings such as those based on the “written words” of the Buddhist scriptures, used as expedient means for practitioners of lower capacity, but not being able to convey the ultimate truth. Of special interest is the idiom 空拳黃葉, since it was formed by combining the key phrases (‘empty fist’ and ‘yellow leaves’) of stories deriving from two different sūtras.

3. Idioms Originating in Chán Buddhist Records of the Lamp (dēnglù 燈錄) During the Five Dynasties and Sòng Periods

By the late Táng 唐 Dynasty, the so-called Southern School (Nánzōng 南宗)—traditionally associated with the Sixth Patriarch Huìnéng 惠能—had become the dominant faction among Chán schools, following the East Mountain (Dōngshān 東山), Northern (Běizōng 北宗), Oxhead (Niútóu zōng 牛頭), Bǎotáng 保唐 Schools, in addition to other Chán movements of the early and mid-Táng. Simultaneously, the late Táng and Five Dynasties periods are characterized by dramatic changes concerning the Chinese language, marking the transition from Early (EMC) to Late Medieval Chinese (LMC), the language which became the main foundation of Mandarin and most modern dialects. Whereas traditional literature in varieties of LC and Buddhist Hybrid Chinese continued to be used, various new genres of popular literature flourished, employing types of semi-vernacular idioms. As evidenced by the manifold Chán treatises, Chán poems, appraisals, and songs discovered among the Dūnhuáng manuscripts, the early Chán school was on the forefront of integrating semantic and syntactic elements of the contemporary language of that period. However, the genre features of the early Chán literature and the technical nature of many Chán treatises imposed limits to the use of vernacular elements, including the creative integration of idiomatic phrases,34 and it was not before the 10th centuries that new Chán genres emerged which facilitated the integration of a large quantity of colloquial elements. In addition, the dialogue style and long narrative passages allowed the abundant use of set phrases and popular sayings, becoming an integral part of these new genres. As a product of this era, Chán Buddhist literature inherited aspects of the previous language features while also embodying the new developments of the language at that time.

The most important Chán genre developing from the 10th century onwards into its mature form is the dēnglù 燈錄 (“Records of the Lamp”), which documented and/or fabricated the circumstances of dharma transmission through successive generations of Chán masters. In the course of their development during the Sòng and later periods, the dēnglù collections typically included a variety of other Chán Buddhist genres, such as gǔzé 古則 (“ancient cases”),35 gōng’àn 公案 (“public cases,” J. kōan), jìsòng 偈頌 (“verses; appraisals”), and jīfēng 機鋒 (“quick-witted dialogues”)36. Many phrases in these genres were repeatedly cited by Chán masters of successive generations, becoming crystallized as frequently used idiomatic phrases within Chán Buddhist literature, with some spreading beyond the sphere of Chán Buddhism to other types of genres, including non-Buddhist literature. This type of idioms is the most numerous in Chán Buddhist literature according to the database, numbering approximately 2000, accounting for 60% of all entries. The important question to which degree Chán Buddhist literati integrated existing colloquial expressions into their texts, and to what extent they invented them in the style of colloquialisms will be shortly discussed in the Conclusion part of this paper. Below, we introduce some representative examples.

(5) Chēng tiān zhǔ dì   撐天拄地

The idiom chēng tiān zhǔ dì 撐天拄地 is frequently encountered in Sòng Dynasty Chán texts. Its literal meaning is “to prop up the sky and support the earth.” In Chán Buddhism, it refers to having one’s head above the blue sky and one’s feet on the earth, describing someone who is upright and indomitable. It can also be a metaphor for the true self-nature that everyone inherently possesses Buddha nature. It can further refer to vigorously expounding the teachings of the Chán school and revitalizing the lineage.

For example, the Gǔzūn sù yǔlù 古尊宿語錄 (Records of the Sayings of Ancient Worthies), fascicle 9, features the following dialogue:

[Somebody] asked: “On the day when you, Preceptor, open the [Dharma] hall, what Dharma will you first use to repay the kindness of the emperor?” The Master said: “Prop up the sky and support the earth.”

問：‘和尚開堂於此日，先將何法報君恩？’師云：‘撑天拄地。’

(CBETA, X68, no. 1315, p. 52, b13–14//Z 2:23, p. 129, a9–10//R118, p. 257, a9–10)

In this example, Shímén Cízhào 石門慈照37 used chēng tiān zhǔ dì 撐天拄地 in the meaning of “revitalizing the lineage,” to answer the question of “what Dharma will you use to repay the kindness of the emperor.”

Another example is from the Jiànzhōng Jìngguó xùdēnglù 建中靖國續燈錄 (Continued Records of the Lamp of the Jianzhong Jingguo Era), fascicle 5:

[Somebody] asked: “What is it like when the lotus flower has not yet emerged from the water?” The Master said: “Prop up the sky and support the earth.” The monk said: “What is it like after it emerges from the water?” The Master said: “Filling ditches and blocking ravines.”

問：「蓮華未出水時如何？」師云：「撑天拄地。」僧曰：「出水後如何？」師云：「填溝塞壑。」

(CBETA, X78, no. 1556, p. 668, c3–4//Z 2B:9, p. 47, b2–3//R136, p. 93, b2–3)

In this case, “the lotus flower having not yet emerged from the water” is a metaphor for the state when one has not yet understood one’s self-nature. Chēng tiān zhǔ dì 撐天拄地 means that the self-nature is inherently complete. As for the rhetorical structure of this short exchange between master and student, it is noteworthy that also the second answer of the master consists of an idiomatic phrase.

The chéngyǔ also appears as zhǔ tiān zhǔ dì 拄天拄地in Xūtáng Héshàng yǔlù 虛堂和尚語錄 (Recorded Sayings of Preceptor Xūtáng), fascicle 5:

[The master said:] “Supporting heaven, supporting earth, black as lacquer, not distinguishing day from night, what is it? Pick it up and throw it into the dung pit; in the fire, the red lotus emits fragrance.”

拄天拄地黑如漆，不分晝夜是何物。拈來拋向屎坑中，火裏紅蓮香拂拂。

(CBETA, T47, no. 2000, p. 1022, c20–21)

The same variation appears in the Liánzhū tōngjí 聯珠通集 (Comprehensive Collection of Linked Pearls), fascicle 32:

Completely dark and indistinct, not waiting to be seen;

Supporting heaven, supporting earth, black and boundless.

The three gates and the kitchen,38 for a long time facing each other;

A path of pine breeze fills the courtyard with cold.

徹底昏昏不待看，

拄天拄地黑漫漫。

三門厨庫長相對，

一徑松風滿院寒。

(CBETA, X65, no. 1295, p. 677, c6–7//Z 2:20, p. 203, d18–p. 204, a1//R115, p. 406, b18–p. 407, a1)

Here, “black as lacquer” is also a metaphor for the mental state before one has understood one’s self-nature.

Alternatively, it appears as zhǔ dì chēng tiān 拄地撐天, as encountered in the Jiànzhōng Jìngguó xùdēnglù 建中靖國續燈錄 (Continued Records of the Lamp of the Jiànzhōng Jìngguó Era), fascicle 25:

Neither big nor small,

supporting the earth and propping up heaven, it is always bright and clear;

Pick it up39 and place it before the assembly,

and all phenomena and the universe will be illuminated.

亦不大，亦不小，

拄地撐天常皎皎。

拈來卓向眾人前，

萬象乾坤都一照。

(CBETA, X78, no. 1556, p. 794, c6–7//Z 2B:9, p. 173, b10–11//R136, p. 345, b10–11)

(6) Chōu dīng bá xiè   抽釘拔楔

The expression chōu dīng bá xiè 抽釘拔楔 literally means “to pull out nails and remove wedges.” In Chán (Zen) Buddhism, it is used metaphorically to describe the removal of deluded thoughts that chase after external things, freeing the practitioner from attachments to worldly conditions. It is often used together with the phrase jiě nián qù fù 解黏去縛 (“to untie attachments (lit. “adhesions”) and remove fetters (lit. “bindings”)), where nián 黏 (“to stick”) and fù 縛 (“to bind”) similarly symbolize the entanglements of the mundane world that bind practitioners.

For example, in the Wǔdēng huìyuán 五燈會元, fascicle 20, it says:

“[…] [Chán masters] in other places (lit. ‘of all directions’) pull out nails and remove wedges for the people, untie attachments and remove fetters. Here, I [instead] add nails and drive in wedges, add ropes and add fetters, and throw them into a deep pool—until they (i.e., the students) are going to understand themselves.”

諸方為人抽釘㧞楔，解黏去縛。我這裏為人添釘著楔，加繩加縛了，送向深潭裏，待他自去理會。

(CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 427, a17–19//Z 2B:11, p. 400, d13–15//R138, p. 800, b13–15)

Here, the meaning is that while other Chán masters help disciples to remove attachments and delusions (“pulling out nails and removing wedges”), this master deliberately “adds nails and wedges, tie them with additional ropes, and throws them into the deep pond,” and let the students awaken themselves through direct realization.

The expression also appears as bá xiè chōu dīng 拔楔抽釘, as for example in the Mì’ān héshang yǔlù 密菴和尚語錄,40 fascicle 1:

Entering the red dust and piles (i.e., turmoil) of the world, within the realm of opposing and complying (i.e., the realm of dualism). Together with all the people, like mixing mud and water, removing wedges and pulling out nails. Without letting them know, they suddenly see through to their original mind and awaken to their original nature.

「入紅塵堆裏，逆順界中。與一切人，和泥合水，拔楔抽釘。令他不覺不知，驀地見徹本心，悟其本性。」

(CBETA, T47, no. 1999, p. 981, b4–6)

In this passage, Mì’ān Xiánjié 密菴咸傑uses “removing wedges and pulling out nails” as a metaphor for eliminating distractions and obstructions caused by worldly conditions, allowing a person to suddenly and directly perceive the original mind (běnxīn 本心) and awaken to the original nature (běnxìng 本性), i.e., Buddha nature.

(7) Dǎ chéng yī piàn   打成一片

The expression dǎ chéng yī piàn 打成一片 originated in Chán Buddhist texts, and literally means “to strike and form one piece” or “to merge into a single piece/whole.” In the Chán context, it refers to bringing together all distinctions and differences into unity—eliminating all discriminating thoughts, attachments, and calculations so that no dualistic thinking remains.

The phrase appears as early as the Táng dynasty in the Huángbò Duànjì Chánshī Wǎnlíng lù 黃檗斷際禪師宛陵錄,41 fascicle 1:

As days and months pass, all becomes fused into one; suddenly the flower of the mind bursts open, awakening to the pivotal point (i.e., essential teaching) of the Patriarch Buddha;42 and then one is no longer deceived by the tongues (i.e., words) of all the old preceptors under heaven.

日久月深打成一片，忽然心花頓發，悟佛祖之機，便不被天下老和尚舌頭瞞。

(CBETA, T48, no. 2012B, p. 387, b7–9)

In the Sòng dynasty, the phrase continued to be used in Chán discourse, as seen in the Yuánwù Fóguǒ Chánshī yǔlù 圓悟佛果禪師語錄, fascicle 4:

“Watching how he carelessly/causally picks things up43—unobstructed, the worldly law and the Buddha’s Dharma are merged into one.”

看其等閑拈掇，不妨世法佛法打成一片。

(CBETA, T47, no. 1997, p. 733, a9–10)

In this passage, the phrase dǎ chéng yī piàn is used to express the insight that there is no essential difference between worldly and Buddhist affairs, and that there is no duality between the sacred and the profane.

Another example can be found in the Fóguǒ Yuánwù Chánshī bìyán lù 佛果圜悟禪師碧巖錄, fascicle 3:

If one approaches from this point (i.e., angle), all past and present, ordinary and sage, heaven and earth—everything becomes one single whole. Only then can one truly understand the human standpoint/place of Yúnmén and Xuědòu.

若向這裏，盡古今凡聖，乾坤大地，打成一片。方見雲門雪竇的的為人處。

(CBETA, T48, no. 2003, p. 168, a22–23)

Also here, the expression is used to indicate that all opposites are transcended and only based on this state one can understand the teachings of the former masters.

The expression also appears as dǎ chéng yī kuài 打成一塊 (“to merge into one lump/piece”), as seen in the Wǔdēng huìyuán五燈會元, fascicle 20:

Huìyìn composed a verse, saying: “The Indian language (i.e., Sanskrit) and the Táng language (i.e., Chinese) have merged into one.”

慧印之以偈曰：「梵語唐言打成一塊。」

(CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 418, c23//Z 2B:11, p. 392, c13//R138, p. 784, a13)

In this playful verse, Huìyìn 慧印 uses dǎ chéng yī kuài to illustrate a state beyond linguistic and cultural distinctions—even fànyǔ 梵語 (Sanskrit) and Tángyán 唐言 (lit. ‘the language of the Táng’, i.e., Chinese) are unified, symbolizing the Chán realization that transcends all forms and boundaries, or any linguistic barriers.

(8) Wú shì shēng shì   無事生事/wú shì shēng fēi   無事生非

The phrase wú shì shēng shì 無事生事” (“to create trouble where there is none/create something out of nothing”)44 appeared relatively early in Sòng dynasty Chán records, such as in the Recorded Sayings of Chán Master Yuánwù Fóguǒ (Yuánwù Fóguǒ chánshī yǔlù 圓悟佛果禪師語錄), fascicle 7:

“This mountain monk speaks in this way—it’s like speaking of a dream without having dreamed, creating something out of nothing.”

“山僧恁麼說話，大似無夢說夢無事生事。”

(CBETA, T47, no. 1997, p. 744, b28–29)

It also occurs in the Blue Cliff Record (Fóguǒ Yuánwù Chánshī bìyán lù 佛果圜悟禪師碧巖錄), fascicle 1: “In broad daylight, to speak of irrelevant matters45—this is creating something out of nothing.” (白日青天說無向當話，無事生事。; CBETA, T48, no. 2003, p. 148, b11–12)

The phrase metaphorically criticizes those who seek the Buddha-Dharma (fófǎ 佛法) within the context of language and words, treating speech itself as the source of awakening—an approach contrary to Chán’s doctrine of wordless transmission. Its meaning parallels expressions such as wú fēng qǐ làng 無風起浪” (“raising waves without wind”) and píng dì qǐ gǔ duī 平地起骨堆” (“raising mounds from level ground”), both denoting groundless and useless activities.

Another example appears in the Yuánwù Fóguǒ Chánshī yǔlù 圓悟佛果禪師語錄, fascicle 9:

“To dabble in words, being involved in speech, to discuss profundity and subtlety—this is creating something from nothing, stirring up waves on level ground.”

涉語涉言說玄說妙，無事生事平地上起波瀾。

(CBETA, T47, no. 1997, p. 752, a9–10)

Here, 無事生事, together with shè yǔ shè yán 涉語涉言 (“to be entangled in (i.e., concerned with) words and speech”) and píngdì shàng qǐ bōlán 平地上起波瀾 (“to stir waves/billows on flat ground”), all reflect Chan’s rejection of reliance on verbal expressions.

Later, the variant wú shì shēng fēi 無事生非” (“to provoke conflict without cause”)46 appeared, likely derived from 無事生事. It can be first detected in Míng-dynasty records, such as in The Recorded Sayings of Chán Master Wànfēng (Wànfēng héshàng yǔlù 萬峰和尚語錄), fascicle 1:

The Master took up [a saying?] and said: “Even the World-Honored One raised waves without wind and saw flowers by pressing his eyes; Kāśyapa as well responded to emptiness and sound—creating trouble where there was none.”

師拈云：”世尊也是無風起浪，捏目生花。迦葉亦乃承虛接響，無事生非。”

(CBETA, J40, no. B492, p. 488, b25–26)

During the Qīng dynasty, the phrase was used more broadly to mean “to stir up disputes intentionally.” For example, in Jìng huā yuán 鏡花緣 (Flowers in the Mirror), fascicle 58:47 “There are robbers who are discontent with their fate, and robbers who make trouble for no reason.” (有不安本分的強盜，有無事生非的強盜。).

4. Idioms Used in Both Secular and Chán (Zen) Literature

The idioms listed in this section appear not only in Chán Buddhist texts but also in secular writings (shìsú wénxiàn 世俗文獻) of the same period, collectively reflecting the colloquial language of the time. These four-character expressions were originally popular sayings, but because of their brevity and expressiveness, they developed into idiomatic phrases through long-term usage. In the database, this group of idioms comprises about 200 examples, accounting for roughly 11% of the corpus.

In the Sòng dynasty, these expressions generally functioned as colloquial phrases or popular sayings and had not yet fully crystallized into what would later be regarded as “idioms” in the stricter sense. Nevertheless, because of their vivid imagery and strong capacity for concise expression, they were frequently employed in both the monastic and secular discursive spheres.

Chán literature did not exist outside the broader system of secular language; rather, it extensively absorbed and reshaped the colloquial expressions current at the time, adapting them to the rhetorical exchanges and doctrinal exposition characteristic of the Chán tradition. At the same time, when these expressions appear in secular writings, they often preserve the experiential and everyday linguistic flavor of ordinary life, thereby reflecting the broader tendency toward colloquialization and imagistic expression in the development of spoken Chinese during the Sòng dynasty.

(9) Ǎizǐ kàn xì   矮子看戲/ǎirén guān chǎng   矮人觀場

This is a common colloquial expression appearing in the Sòng dynasty, referring to a short person in a crowd who cannot see the (theater) stage, yet follows others’ reactions to the play blindly. This was metaphorically used for people echoing what others say without independent judgment.

It appears for example in Wǔdēng huìyuán五燈會元, fascicle 19:

All of a sudden, a fellow came forward and said: “Elder, if you speak just like this, then it is [like] white clouds stretching for ten thousand lǐ.” Such words are what we call ‘a short man watching a play’—he merely follows others’ ups and downs.

忽有箇漢出來道： “長老你恁麼道，也則白雲萬里。’這箇說話，喚作矮子看戲，隨人上下。”

(CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 393, a14–16//Z 2B:11, p. 366, d12–14//R138, p. 732, b12–14)

The phrase is also used in the Neo-Confucian text Zhūzǐ yǔlèi 朱子語類 (“Classified Conversations of Master Zhū Xī”), fascicle 116:

As for those who claim that someone’s poetry is good or bad […] it’s just like a short man watching a play: when he sees that others say it’s good, he also says it’s good, but if it comes to that somebody asks in what way it was good, he has never known/understood [the play].

其有知得某人詩好，某人詩不好者……如矮子看戲相似，見人道好他也道好，及至問著他那裏是好處，元不曾識。48

The expression also appears in the form of zhūrú guān xì as 侏儒觀戲 (“a dwarf watching a play”), as in Qǔ Wěi jiù wén 曲洧舊聞 (Old Tales from the Qǔ Wěi Studio), fascicle 7:

Those who uncritically follow the footsteps of their predecessors and don’t discuss from where they were coming from, are like dwarfs watching a play—laughing when others laugh, saying ‘the crowd cannot be wrong,’ and there are many such cases.

有蹈前人舊轍而不討論所從來者，譬侏儒觀戲，人笑亦笑，謂衆人決不誤我者，比比皆是也。49

In the Míng dynasty, the form ǎirén kàn xì 矮人看戲 appeared, as in Wǔdēng yántǒng jiěhuò biān 五燈嚴統解惑編 (Compilation of Doubts Resolved in the Strict Transmission of the Five Lamps),50 fascicle 1:

People like Master Sānyí were universally mocked/depreciated as laughingstocks through the ages—ridiculed as ‘short men watching a play.’

三宜公輩，槩貶為千古笑具，譏為矮人看戲。

(CBETA, X81, no. 1569, p. 321, b10//Z 2B:12, p. 526, d13//R139, p. 1052, b13)

Likewise, Zǐbó zūnzhě quánjí 紫柏尊者全集 (The Collected Works of Master Zǐbó), fascicle 2, has 矮人觀場:

Like those who have doubts when they are young and have trust when they are old, […] and [like] those who enter in the morning and leave in the evening; such people are like short men at the theater; rejoicing and lamenting with the crowd (lit. “in accordance with the sound [they hear]”)—what’s strange about that?

若夫少疑而老信……以至朝入暮出者，此又矮人觀場，隨聲悲歡者，復何怪哉。

(CBETA, X73, no. 1452, p. 158, b2–4//Z 2:31, p. 333, a2–4//R126, p. 665, a2–4)

Another Chán-related idiom containing ǎizǐ 矮子 (“short man”) is ǎizǐ ní bì 矮子泥壁 (“a short man plastering a wall”), literally describing someone who can only reach halfway up the wall—a metaphor for superficial learning or incomplete practice, similar to “half-baked knowledge.” For example, in Gǔ Xuě Zhé Chánshī yǔlù 古雪哲禪師語錄 (Recorded Sayings of Chán Master Gǔ Xuě Zhé), fascicle 4:

進云：“學人到者裏，只得兵隨印轉去也。” 師云：“矮子泥壁。”

A monk stepped forward [and said]: “This student having come here can only follow the seal wherever it turns.” The master replied: “You’re like a short man plastering a wall.’”

(CBETA, J28, no. B208, p. 326, b4–5)

(10) Bā liǎng bàn jīn   八兩半斤/bàn jīn bā liǎng   半斤八兩

This popular Sòng dynasty idiom consists of two measures, bā liǎng “eight taels” which equal bàn jīn “half catty;” by extension, it can mean “the same thing” or “no difference between the two.”

In the Pǔjué Dàhuì Pǔjué Chánshī yǔlù 大慧普覺禪師語錄 (The Recorded Sayings of Chán Master Dàhuì), fascicle 24, there is the following example:

Whether you say this is right or that is wrong, one can be exchanged for the other—they’re just ‘eight taels and half a catty,’ equally the same.

只這兩錯……以此易彼，八兩半斤耳。

(CBETA, T47, no. 1998A, p. 915, a27–b2)

Another example can be found in the Chánzōng sònggǔ liánzhū tōngjí 禪宗頌古聯珠通集 (Comprehensive Anthology of the String of Pearls Verse Commentary of the Chán Lineage),51 fascicle 36:

When asked about the Buddha, Huìchāo replied clearly—half a catty, eight taels—there’s no difference between them.

問佛分明答惠超，半斤八兩不相饒。

(CBETA, X65, no. 1295, p. 704, a19//Z 2:20, p. 230, b10//R115, p. 459, b10)

Scattered usages also appear in the Wǔdēng huìyuán 五燈會元, fascicle 11:

The master said: “Half a catty at the head of the scale, eight taels at the tail—it’s all the same.”

師曰：”秤頭半斤，秤尾八兩。”

(CBETA, X80, no. 1565, p. 236, b12–13)

A similar phrasing occurs in Tiānshèng guǎng dēnglù 天聖廣燈錄 (Extensive Lamp Record from the Tiānshèng Era), fascicle 25:

問：“如何是佛法大意。’師云：‘八兩是半斤。”

[Somebody] asked, “What is the cardinal meaning of the Buddha-Dharma?” The master replied: “Eight taels is half a catty.”

(CBETA, X78, no. 1553, p. 553, a21–22)

Non-Buddhist texts also use this idiom, such as the Sòng dynasty play Zhāng Xié zhuàngyuán 張協狀元 (Zhāng Xié the Exam Top Scorer), act 28:

You two are just the same—half a catty, eight taels; each of you return—no need to be angry.

“兩個半斤八兩，各家歸去不須嗔。”52

5. Conclusions

Chán Buddhist literature, as a major corpus of texts from the premodern period that extensively absorbed elements of the spoken language, has preserved a rich array of colloquial expressions and idioms. It therefore constitutes an important source for the study of Chinese Historical Linguistics in general, and of Chinese idioms in particular, in addition to the richness of rhetorical devices which had developed in the context of Chán Buddhist literature. This study has systematically examined aspects of the origins and the use of Chán idiomatic phrases, particularly the close relationship between idioms and the spoken language of the respective period.

From the perspective of definition, the characterization of idioms in the Hànyǔ dà cídiǎn—as “fixed phrases that have been in long-term usage, possess a stabilized/fixed structure, and convey a specific meaning”—best accords with the features observed in Chán Buddhist idiomatic phrases. Among these characteristics, “long-term habitual usage” constitutes the core feature of idioms, rather than the presence or absence of a literary register. In the scholarly discussion of the origin of idioms, two principal views have been advanced: that idioms originated mainly from the written language of predominantly classical literature, and, alternatively, that they predominantly originated from the spoken language. Some scholars, observing that idioms often display a balanced four-character structure and an archaic stylistic flavor, have mistakenly regarded “literary coloration” as a necessary condition for idioms. Such a view does not accord with historical evidence. Through a systematic examination of more than 50,000 idioms listed in the Hànyǔ chéngyǔ yuánliú dàcídiǎn, we conclude that only a relatively smaller proportion of Chinese idioms actually derives from “classical” written sources. The majority emerged from long-term usage and selection within the spoken language of successive periods. The process of idiom formation typically involves multiple colloquial expressions undergoing repeated use and competition, often undergoing diversification and semantic extensions, and gradually solidifying into fixed forms that are eventually absorbed into the written language.

Against this theoretical background, we have reviewed the history of research on Chán idioms, beginning with the encyclopedic Zǔtíng shìyuàn compiled in the Sòng dynasty, continuing through premodern and modern Japanese dictionaries of Chán expressions, and extending to modern Buddhist and Chán lexical works compiled by Chinese and Japanese scholars. On the basis of these studies, we constructed a “Database of Chán Idioms” containing more than 3300 entries. Each idiom was systematically analyzed from several perspectives, including meaning, variant forms, examples of usage, and sources. Statistical analysis of the database allows us to classify the origins of Chan idioms into four categories: approximately 11% derive from secular/canonical literature prior to the Táng–Sòng period, about 20% from Buddhist canonical texts, about 60% from the vocabulary of the Chán community as mainly found in dialogues, and about 8% from contemporary secular colloquial speech. These figures clearly indicate that the majority of Chán idioms were not directly inherited from classical literature, but rather emerged in the conversations and gōng’àn exchanges of Chán monks, exhibiting a pronounced colloquial character and a vivid sense of immediacy.

The systematic integration of idioms containing colloquial elements certainly was an important and highly successful strategy adopted by Chán literati beginning at the latest from the 10th century onward and refined during successive periods of development of Chán Buddhist literary genres. Together with the integration of vernacular vocabulary and Early Mandarin syntactic constructions, the frequent use of idioms metaphorically using imagery of popular culture was an important device to linguistically express the fundamental Chán Buddhist notion of “everyday mind is the Buddha” and that the locus of enlightenment is beyond the written words of sacred and/or canonical literature.

Historically, this transition to increasingly vernacular registers as seen in early Chán transmission texts and encounter dialogues must be contextualized based on events taking place during the late Táng, Five Dynasties, and early Sòng periods. The Zǔtang jí, dating from the mid-10th century is the most important early representative of this new Chán-type historiographical texts, and featuring a remarkable number of vernacular constructions, vocabulary, and idiomatic phrases. However, Chán literature was not the only genre integrating colloquial elements. Earlier and contemporaneously, other important semi-vernacular genres emerged (or were for the first time committed into a written form), such as the Transformation texts (biànwén 變文), Sūtra Lecture texts (jiǎngjīngwén 講經文), vernacularized Buddha biographies (yīnyuán 敦煌因緣), Seat Settling texts (yāzuòwén 押座文), as well as a great variety of semi-vernacular poetry.53 Without this literary and linguistic context, Chán literature might have developed in a very different way.

In this respect, important questions are emerging: To what degree were idioms appearing in Chán literature for the first time in written form (60%) absorbed and transformed from existing popular sayings of a specific period, and eventually integrated into the literary structure of semi-vernacular Chán texts? And to what extent were idioms coined in the context of Chán literary creativity? These questions will need much more detailed studies in the future, and at the same time might never be fully and satisfactorily answered, since the origin of many “popular” idioms cannot be traced beyond their initial appearance in Chán literature.

Idioms derived from secular literature—such as chā qiáng rén yì (“barely satisfactory”), fāng ruì yuán záo (“square peg in a round hole”), and tóu shǔ jì qì (“to hesitate to act for fear of damaging something valuable”)—often developed more colloquial variants after entering Chán texts. For instance, fāng ruì yuán záo appears in Chan literature in the vernacularized form “a square piece of wood inserted into a round hole,” while tóu shǔ jì qì gave rise to colloquial expressions such as “unable to strike the rat for fear of damaging the copper basin.” These examples show that idioms are not fixed and immutable once formed; rather, they may undergo variation in the course of actual usage. Idioms derived from Buddhist canonical literature, such as “catching the moon in the water” and “yellow leaves used to stop a child’s crying,” typically evolved from scriptural parables. They may record Buddhist narrative traditions, reflect doctrinal teachings and religious practice, or preserve certain cultural customs of Indian Buddhism.

The Táng–Sòng period marks a transitional stage from ancient to early modern Chinese, during which many newly created, or highly popular idioms, appeared in Chán literature. Examples include expressions such as “supporting heaven and propping up the earth,” “pulling out nails and removing wedges,” “merging into one whole,” and “making trouble where none exists.” Most probably, many of these phrases originated directly from oral exchanges among monks;54 their vivid imagery and dynamic language reflect the Chán emphasis on “a transmission outside the scriptures,” while also providing later generations with highly condensed expressions. In addition, a number of idioms appear both in Chán literature and in secular texts, such as “a dwarf watching a play,” “half a catty, eight taels,” “discussing military strategy on paper,” and “a tiger’s head and a snake’s tail.” At the time of their emergence, these expressions were merely popular sayings or colloquial phrases. Because of their stable structure and precise expressive power, however, they gradually solidified through long-term usage and eventually became widely used idioms in modern Chinese. Some expressions that remain common today—such as “creating trouble out of nothing,” “half a catty, eight taels,” “discussing strategy on paper,” and “a tiger’s head and a snake’s tail”—acquired their canonical four-character form during the Sòng dynasty.

In conclusion, most idioms recorded in Chán literature can be traced to the spoken language of a specific period, were created based on exchanges of Chán masters with their students or with each other, or coined in the context of literary creativity when editing Chán texts (or even a combination of these three aspects!). As mentioned above, the differentiation between these “origins” will require additional and prolonged research. More generally, the development of Chán idioms conforms to the general pattern of Chinese idiom formation: expressions rooted in spoken language gradually became fixed through long-term usage. Many of the idioms that arose during the Sòng dynasty initially circulated primarily within Chán literature; yet, some particularly expressive phrases were repeatedly adopted in secular writings, gradually shedding their specifically Chán connotations and developing into fixed expressions with broader metaphorical meanings.