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Pathogens
Volume 15
Issue 9
10.3390/pathogens15090901
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Review

Drivers of Viral Spillover: An Examination of How Pathogens Spread

by
Elenoire Sole
,
Giulia Montalbano
,
Giuseppe Motta
,
Maria Maddalena Pansera
,
Angelina Midiri
,
Mariarita Iacopino
,
Paolo Liotta
,
Giuseppe Mancuso
* and
Carmelo Biondo
Department of Human Pathology, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pathogens 2026, 15(9), 901; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15090901
Submission received: 18 July 2026 / Revised: 18 August 2026 / Accepted: 25 August 2026 / Published: 26 August 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)
Versions Notes

Abstract

The occurrence of viral zoonotic spillover (the transmission of viruses from animals to humans) has attracted worldwide attention due to mounting concerns regarding viral threats such as avian influenza, Hendra, monkeypox, Nipah and bat coronaviruses. It is evident that these events deviate significantly from natural occurrences, being the conflation of ecological, environmental and social factors that are profoundly altering the boundaries between the animal and human domains. Consequently, in order to comprehend both the contemporary and prospective drivers of zoonotic viral spillover, a coordinated, comprehensive global One Health response is essential. The purpose of the present review is to analyze prevailing pathways of transmission between animal reservoirs and human populations. This examination involves the analysis of historical cases, including those of SARS and Ebola, as well as recent occurrences, such as the global pandemic of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). A secondary objective of this review is to comprehend the fundamental mechanisms of cross-species transmission. The development of effective strategies to mitigate the emergence of zoonotic viruses and prevent future pandemics is contingent on a robust understanding of these mechanisms. This analysis is key to identifying pandemic pathogens and preventing the spread of zoonotic viruses. In conclusion, the review provides a thorough evaluation of current global strategies to prevent the spread of zoonotic viruses, highlighting gaps in our understanding and areas for further research.
Keywords: viral adaptation; zoonotic diseases; climate change; one health framework viral adaptation; zoonotic diseases; climate change; one health framework

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MDPI and ACS Style

Sole, E.; Montalbano, G.; Motta, G.; Pansera, M.M.; Midiri, A.; Iacopino, M.; Liotta, P.; Mancuso, G.; Biondo, C. Drivers of Viral Spillover: An Examination of How Pathogens Spread. Pathogens 2026, 15, 901. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15090901

AMA Style

Sole E, Montalbano G, Motta G, Pansera MM, Midiri A, Iacopino M, Liotta P, Mancuso G, Biondo C. Drivers of Viral Spillover: An Examination of How Pathogens Spread. Pathogens. 2026; 15(9):901. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15090901

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sole, Elenoire, Giulia Montalbano, Giuseppe Motta, Maria Maddalena Pansera, Angelina Midiri, Mariarita Iacopino, Paolo Liotta, Giuseppe Mancuso, and Carmelo Biondo. 2026. "Drivers of Viral Spillover: An Examination of How Pathogens Spread" Pathogens 15, no. 9: 901. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15090901

APA Style

Sole, E., Montalbano, G., Motta, G., Pansera, M. M., Midiri, A., Iacopino, M., Liotta, P., Mancuso, G., & Biondo, C. (2026). Drivers of Viral Spillover: An Examination of How Pathogens Spread. Pathogens, 15(9), 901. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15090901

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