Traces of Chinese Philosophy in Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü: A Comparative Study on the Axis of Wisdom, Governance and Death

Abstract

In this study, Sabahattin Ali’s theatre play Esirler (2020) and Nihal Atsız’s novel Bozkurtların Ölümü (2010) are examined. The two works comparatively examine how the Chinese philosophical thought tradition is represented on the axes of wisdom, governance and death. The study brings together the approaches of comparative literature, imagology, philosophical hermeneutics and close reading. Thus, it discusses how the Chinese hetero-image and the Turkish self-image are constructed in the two texts. The figure of wisdom, wu-wei/inaction, symbolic governance, the perception of death as transformation, suggestive expression and the relationship between language/translation have been determined as the main categories of analysis. The findings show that Chinese thought is used more extensively in the play Esirler. Issues of wisdom, death and governance produce an ethical–political awakening and intellectual depth. In Bozkurtların Ölümü, however, Chinese thought is more limited. It becomes visible especially through the opposition established with the Chinese sage, language, intrigue and the Turkish warrior identity. Thus, a similar historical ground is reshaped through different ideological and aesthetic orientations. In this respect, the study opens an original field of discussion regarding the reception of Chinese thought in Turkish literature. As a result, the study reveals that China functions in Turkish literature not only as a historical rival or cultural other, but also as an intellectual field of contact.

1. Introduction

With the establishment of the Republic of Türkiye in 1923, Turkish literature underwent significant developments in terms of modernization, nation-building, and ideological orientations (Moran 1983; Parla 2000; Akyüz 1995; Enginün 2007). At the same time, the religious and cultural structures of the civilizations with which it had historically interacted underwent transformations and were incorporated into literary texts. One of the most significant examples of this interaction is Turkish–Chinese relations (Grousset 1970; Liu 1958). The long-standing historical proximity between the Turks and Chinese society also provided a basis for interaction at the philosophical and intellectual levels (Barfield 1989; Sinor 1990; Golden 1992; Beckwith 2009). The fact that China has predominantly been represented in Turkish literature as a historical rival or cultural “other” further increases the significance of this subject. This historical and cultural background makes it necessary to examine the literary representations of this interaction.

The literary representation of this interaction is particularly evident in Sabahattin Ali’s play Esirler (Ali 2020) and Nihal Atsız’s novel Bozkurtların Ölümü (Atsız 2010). Although both works can be situated within the same historical universe, they incorporate elements of Chinese thought into their narratives through different literary forms. However, at a time when access to original Chinese sources was considerably limited, both authors, who did not know Chinese, had to rely on translations produced by Western sinologists. While Nihal Atsız’s son, Buğra Atsız, states that his father did not know Chinese (Atsız 2019, p. 6), it is also known that Sabahattin Ali encountered elements of Chinese history and culture not through direct engagement with Chinese texts, but through German, a language in which he was highly proficient (Siedel 1983).

Despite this commonality in their source contexts, studies on Sabahattin Ali and Nihal Atsız have largely focused on their differing ideological positions (Korkmaz 1997; Landau 1995; Uzer 2016). The two authors are generally discussed in relation to Turkism, socialism, nationalism, and the literary representation of historical figures (Kaplan 1997). While Sabahattin Ali is predominantly characterized as a social realist and left-leaning writer, Nihal Atsız is known as a Turkist, Pan-Turanist, and nationalist-conservative writer and intellectual. Moreover, the fact that Nihal Atsız proposed the subject of the play Esirler reveals an interesting intellectual intersection between the two authors. This circumstance also reflects Sabahattin Ali’s implicit relationship with the official discourse of the period. Having been sentenced to imprisonment on the allegation that he had written a satirical poem about Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Türkiye, Sabahattin Ali produced various writings during his incarceration in an effort to dispel the political suspicions directed against him. The author himself expressed his hope that Esirler would function as a text capable of changing the negative perception of him. In a letter dated 15 February 1934, to his friend Ayşe Sıtkı, he stated that he regarded Esirler as a means of demonstrating his personal transformation and that he had high expectations for the play (Ali 1997, p. 181).

Despite the considerable number of studies focusing on the authors’ ideological positions, biographical contexts, and the circumstances surrounding the production of their works, the question of how Chinese thought is represented in these texts and what narrative functions it performs has not been sufficiently addressed. Studies on the image of China in Turkish literature generally focus on Turkish–Chinese historical relations and the representation of China as the “other.” By contrast, the reflections of concepts such as Chinese philosophy, Taoism, wu-wei, wisdom, the allusiveness of language, and the conception of death in Turkish literature are usually discussed only in terms of general influence. In particular, how Chinese thought is differently treated through the themes of wisdom, governance, and death in Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü, and how these motifs affect characterization, plot, and discourse, have not been systematically examined. In this respect, the present study aims to go beyond identifying thematic similarities and to reveal, through a comparative approach, the narrative functions of these motifs. The insufficiently systematic examination of the functional and philosophical uses of Chinese thought in fictional texts establishes the originality of this study.

In the examination of the works, particular attention will be paid to the figure of the sage, the understanding of inaction, the conception of governance, the perception of death as transformation, the principle of producing much meaning with few words, and the construction of Chinese and Turkish images. These elements will not be examined only at the thematic level. They will also be evaluated in terms of plot, character construction, dialogue structure and style. Thus, the study aims to reveal whether Chinese thought in these works is not merely a historical decoration, but a meaning-constructing narrative component.

Within the context of this aim and scope, the research questions have been shaped as follows:

• How do the motifs of wisdom, governance and death belonging to the Chinese philosophical–intellectual tradition become visible in Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü? In addition, what kinds of functions do they assume within the text?
• Through which narrative strategies, character oppositions and forms of dialogue are the “Chinese” hetero-image and the “Turkish” self-image constructed in these two works?
• How do elements belonging to Chinese thought, such as wu-wei, the sage ruler, the cyclical understanding of death and suggestive expression, direct the plot and the decision-making forms of the characters?

The study is theoretically based on the approach of comparative literature (Wellek and Warren 1949; Bassnett 1993; Tötösy de Zepetnek 1998; Damrosch 2003). It evaluates the two texts within the relations of intercultural interaction, similarity and difference. In addition, within the framework of imagology, it will question how the “Chinese” is constructed as a hetero-image and the “Turk” as a self-image (Beller and Leerssen 2007). Philosophical hermeneutics and the method of close reading will also be used to reveal the layers of meaning of motifs such as wisdom, death, governance and language within the text (Gadamer 2004; Ricoeur 1976). As a result, the study proposes a multi-layered analysis that brings together both cultural image analysis and the reading of intellectual content.

This study is limited only to two fictional texts. It does not claim to make generalising judgements about all traces of Chinese thought in the literature of the early period of the Republic of Türkiye. In addition, in order to avoid anachronistic interpretations of the concepts, terms belonging to the Chinese philosophical thought tradition will be addressed, as far as possible, within their historical contexts and in relation to the fictional worlds of the texts. In particular, the modern popular uses of concepts such as Taoism, wu-wei, wisdom and death will not be taken as a basis; rather, their functional equivalents in the texts will be considered.

The original contribution of this study emerges at three levels:

• It offers a comparative reading that examines the motifs of wisdom, governance and death belonging to the Chinese philosophical–intellectual tradition not only as themes, but also together with their narrative functions.
• By combining imagology and philosophical hermeneutics, it proposes an integrated method that evaluates both the planes of cultural representation and intellectual content together.
• Thirdly, through Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü, it establishes a new and more systematic ground for discussion regarding the reception of Chinese thought in Turkish literature.

With these three original contributions, it opens a new line of reading that makes visible the traces of Chinese philosophy in Turkish literature.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Comparative Literature, Reception and Imagology

This study takes its theoretical basis from comparative literature (Wellek and Warren 1949; Bassnett 1993; Tötösy de Zepetnek 1998). Comparative literature is not merely a method that identifies similarities and differences between two texts (Jost 1974; Bassnett 1993; Damrosch 2003). At the same time, it reveals the ways in which different cultures and civilisations influence one another. It has a broad field of research that examines how this influence is transformed in literary texts and what layers of meaning it produces. In this direction, Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü will not be examined only in terms of their treatment of the same historical period and some common figures. These two works are also considered as two texts suitable for comparative reading in terms of the different ways in which they integrate Chinese thought into fiction. It is clearly stated that one of the main questions of the study is “the perception of the Chinese formed in both authors and the ways in which they use Chinese philosophy”. In this way, it becomes possible to carry the examination beyond the limits of classical comparative literature and to associate it with reception and imagology.

For this reason, the study examines the ways in which Chinese thought was received in Turkish literature, focusing on Sabahattin Ali and Nihal Atsız. The main aim is not only to examine whether Chinese philosophy enters the texts merely as an external cultural material. It is also to show how it turns into a meaning-producing function within the levels of plot, character construction and discourse. In addition, by making use of the conceptual framework provided by imagology, the examination aims to question how the “Chinese” is constructed in the texts as a hetero-image and, in contrast, with which qualities the “Turk” is turned into a self-image (Chew 2006; Leerssen 2016; Beller and Leerssen 2007).

2.2. Philosophical Hermeneutics and Close Reading

The second theoretical pillar of the study consists of philosophical hermeneutics and close reading (Palmer 1969; Gadamer 2004; Ricoeur 1976). In the study, the identification of the philosophical motif in a literary work goes “beyond a superficial reading”. Philosophical elements are fully placed within the texture of the text through the author’s narrative mastery. The analysis of these elements makes visible the intellectual depth and philosophical aspect of the work. For this reason, the study does not limit itself to scanning the texts only at the thematic level. It also examines, with hermeneutic attention, how concepts such as wisdom, governance, death, language, allusiveness, inaction and transformation are woven into the text. The principle of the hermeneutic circle is decisive in the study (Gadamer 2004). The part illuminates the whole, and the whole illuminates the part. For example, a single dialogue is treated not merely as an exchange of information, but as a nodal point that makes visible the general intellectual organisation of the text. Similarly, a single character trait is interpreted within a broader context that reveals the relevant work’s approach to Chinese thought.

Within this framework, the concepts belonging to Chinese thought are first identified on the conceptual plane (Fung 1948; Graham 1989; Lai 2008; Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005). In the later process, they are read through their concrete equivalents in the texts. In the works, particular emphasis is placed on wu-wei as inaction, effortless action, the symbolic presence of the sage ruler, the understanding of death as transformation, allusive expression that produces much meaning with few words, and the central position of the sage figure (Ames and Hall 2003; Zhuangzi 2003; Slingerland 2003). In Esirler, the dead sage turns into a narrative node that points to liberation. The interpretation of death on the axis of sleep and continuity, the reflection of the Taoist understanding of governance in the emperor–minister relationship, and the antithetical propositions in the style are associated with Chinese thought (Ames and Hall 2003; Puett 2002; Lewis 2007; Kohn 1992; Robinet 1997). In Bozkurtların Ölümü, however, the figure of Şen-Ma, the philosophy–language relationship he establishes with Yamtar, the conception of death as a change of form, and short, intense, aphoristic expressions are observed. These constitute the main objects of close reading. In this way, the study examines the scenes in which the concepts are explicitly named. It also evaluates together the sections in which these concepts are indirectly suggested in terms of the intellectual intensity within the text.

2.3. Orientalism and the Construction of an Imaginary China

The study also concerns the discipline of Orientalism as a complementary framework. In general, Orientalism is a term implying a distinctiveness associated with the East and is defined as the interpretation of the East through Western perspectives and value judgments. Fundamentally, the most precise definition of Orientalism is that it constitutes an academic field of study (Said 1979, p. 49). The primary reason underlying the desire to understand the East is that “it exerts a hold over people and commands attention for economic, political, cultural, or religious reasons” (Said 2000, p. 41).

During the early Republican era, the translation of Chinese texts into Turkish was primarily carried out via French and German versions. In this period, when access to Classical Chinese was limited, Turkish intellectuals accessed these texts through such translations. As a result, the depiction of China and Chinese people reflected in his works is not shaped by a sinologist’s perspective directly familiar with the texts, but rather by the selection and transformation of translations in a way that suits the author’s ideological and artistic aims. The frame of reference for the Turkish intellectual, who constructed China as “the Other,” was not Chinese sources but the Western corpus. As a result, the categories of the “East” produced by the West permeated the intellectual landscape of Turkish thinkers. In works such as Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü, the traces of a form of Orientalism can be discerned.

2.4. Narratological Framework

In the study, narratological criteria are used as a complementary framework (Bal 2017; Chatman 1978; Genette 1980). This is because the philosophical motif and the related concepts become visible as “articulated” to the elements of plot, characters, time and space. For this reason, the analysis aims to show that philosophical motifs are not merely thematic signs, but also functional elements that construct the narrative. From this perspective, they are taken into consideration through narrative tools such as narrative order, focalisation, character functions, dialogue structure, the production of oppositions, aphoristic expression, antithesis and irony (Genette 1980; Chatman 1978; Bal 2017). The study states that, particularly in Esirler, Chinese philosophy creates a discursive field that spreads throughout the whole play. On the other hand, in Bozkurtların Ölümü, the observation that it functions more like a philosophical island concentrated on the Şen-Ma–Yamtar line also forms the basis of narratological differentiation.

Thus, this study aims to demonstrate that Chinese thought, as presented in these two texts, is more than merely a “subject matter.” Consequently, this theoretical framework integrates comparative literature, reception studies, imagology, philosophical hermeneutics, the field of Orientalism, and narratological close reading. This approach makes it possible to conduct a comprehensive comparison between Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü on the axes of wisdom, governance and death. In this way, the intellectual and narrative layers between the two texts can be examined in a multi-dimensional manner.

3. Textual Analysis and Close Reading Findings

The texts of Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü were examined through a scene- and passage-based close reading method.

3.1. Case I: Sabahattin Ali’s Esirler

The works Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü which lend themselves to comparison within the context of Chinese philosophical teachings also share similarities in terms of their plot structures. Comprising a prologue and three acts, the play Esirler is set in the Chinese city of Chang’an (Siganfu) during the seventh century AD. Kür Şad, who gathers the Turks around the body of a wise elder, devises a plan to raid the Chinese palace in order to liberate the Turks who have become politically conscious following this death from captivity. The plan is thwarted when the minister Wen-Ching learns of it, alerts the emperor, and takes precautionary measures; in the ensuing clashes, Kür Şad, Wen-Ching, and numerous Turkish and Chinese soldiers lose their lives. The play begins with the death of the wise elder and concludes with another scene of death.

3.1.1. The Opening Scene: Wisdom and the Life–Death Dialectic

The conversations held over the dead body of the Sage at the opening of the play Esirler constitute the first scene that establishes the intellectual backbone of the text. While the servants in the play speak about the meaning of death, death is defined not merely as a fear-inducing end, but as a state of tranquillity that comes after suffering. In the conversations, the definition in the form of “long and dreamless sleep” (Ali 2020, p. 163) enables death to be removed from being frightening and to be thought of as a restful continuity. This expression softens the sharp distinction between life and death. It interprets death not as a rupture, but as a transition.

At the lexical level, the expressions “to die”, “sleep”, “sorrow”, “tired body” and “dreamless sleep” draw attention. At the rhetorical level, while death is first mentioned as an object of fear, its immediate redefinition as a peaceful state produces a clear opposition. As a result of this narration, the scene ceases to be merely a death scene. The interpretation of life that the figure of the Sage constructs through death opens an ethical and existential field of thought at the very beginning of the play. This expression also establishes an intellectual balance against fear in the political and social environment of oppression in which the Turks find themselves. For this reason, it constitutes a narrative node in which the motifs of “wisdom and life–death” operate together. The construction of death in this way prepares an ethical ground for the later struggle for freedom.

At the imagological level, this scene is also important. The Turkish servants are not defined merely as people mourning in the face of death. Their transformation into thinking subjects who question the meaning of death constructs the Turkish self-image not only as warrior-like, but also as a community with intellectual intensity. In this respect, from the very beginning, Esirler treats philosophy not as an ornament outside the plot, but as a way in which the characters make sense of their existence.

3.1.2. Wu-Wei and the Conception of Governance

In the first act of the play, the speeches of the philosopher Siyaohi show that concepts belonging to Chinese thought are carried openly into the theatre play (Ali 2020). Siyaohi expresses the conceptual background of the Chinese intellectual tradition by referring to the balance between Yin and Yang, the idea of the “central life force” and the conception of heaven (Hansen 1992). In this depicted theatre scene, philosophy appears not only as a field of personal wisdom, but also as an attempt to explain the world, order and balance.

Even though the concept of wu-wei is not mentioned by name in the theatre text, it is felt indirectly in the play’s understanding of power and governance (Slingerland 2003; Ames and Hall 2003). Kürşad’s strategic thinking instead of the direct use of force and his search for a solution through Yulu Han and Hiyungyu show that he seeks a more planned path rather than a direct and crude rebellion. This attitude brings forward the idea of measured and rational intervention rather than non-intervention. Although this does not fully correspond to the principle of “governing without acting”, the idea of indirect guidance instead of naked force in governance is formed here. In particular, Kürşad’s emphasis that “we must act more wisely” (Ali 2020, p. 169) shows that rebellion should not be carried out only with courage, but also with strategy.

In terms of narrative function, these scenes carry the events from the level of mere emotional reaction to the level of political reason. In this way, in Esirler, the idea of governance is removed from a crude depiction of the state. The narrative is shaped around reason, measure, balance and indirect action. The Chinese image is not represented here only through oppressive power. Through the figure of the philosopher, a tradition that produces thought also becomes visible. This situation removes the Chinese image in the work from being one-dimensional and makes it multidimensional. In contrast, the Turkish self-image is constructed as a community that desires freedom but can combine this with thought and planning. These scenes are decisive in terms of the motifs of governance and wu-wei/inaction.

3.1.3. Style and Antitheses: Aphorism and Irony

The characteristic feature of Esirler is that it treats its intellectual content not through direct didactic explanations, but through short, dense sentences built on oppositions (Ali 2020). In response to the sentence “Nothing is more frightening than death”, the answer “Everything is more frightening than death” is given (Ali 2020, p. 162). Thus, the antithetical logic of expression in the text is clearly shown. This structure is not merely a linguistic ornament, but the way in which thought is constructed. Meaning is not fixed in a single sentence. In the text, it is immediately shaken and deepened by an opposing sentence (Ricoeur 1976).

Similarly, the speeches of the philosopher Siyaohi also carry paradox, slight irony and aphoristic density. He develops the idea of loving all existence through loving “no one”. As a result, he creates an intellectual leap between individual love and universal love. Here, language aims to make one think rather than to explain. The suggestive and dense mode of expression, which is thought to be specific to Chinese thought, has also permeated the style of the play.

The function of this style within the plot also forms an important structure. Short and striking sentences make the inner conflict of the characters visible. They transform the desire for freedom from an ordinary political complaint into a philosophical constriction. At the imagological level, Chinese thought is represented not only through concepts, but also through the mode of expression. For this reason, these scenes are of central importance in terms of the code of the language/philosophy relationship.

3.2. Case II: Nihal Atsız’s Bozkurtların Ölümü

Nihal Atsız’s novel Bozkurtların Ölümü focuses on the First Göktürk Khaganate’s fall into Chinese captivity. The novel opens on a summer night in 621 with the poisoning of Chuluo Khagan and the proclamation of Baghatur Shad as the new khagan. In 622, playing a pivotal role as the leader chosen by the Turks, Kür Şad leads them across the Great Wall of China; they defeat the Chinese forces and capture the enemy commander alive, albeit wounded. During another raid launched against China in the winter of 627, all the surviving Turks including Kür Şad are taken prisoner. In the final section of the novel, the Turks have been living as captives in the Chinese capital of Chang’an for a year. In the ninth year of their captivity, Kür Şad and forty companions stage an uprising in pursuit of freedom but fail due to adverse weather conditions. In the clashes along the banks of the Wei River, Kür Şad fights against the Chinese imperial court to the very end. Chinese soldiers sever his head from his body and take it to their khagan. Kür Şad and the other fallen warriors are welcomed in the Tian Shan Mountains by the legendary hero Alp Er Tunga.

3.2.1. Şen-Ma–Yamtar Dialogues: Philosophy and Practicality

The relationship established between Şen-Ma and Yamtar in the novel is one of the areas in which Chinese thought becomes visible together with the Turkish warrior mentality (Atsız 2010, p. 16). In the text of Bozkurtların Ölümü, Yamtar’s attitude is seen as being constructed through hunger, satiety, preparation for war, strength and practical benefit. He begins his preparations before the war. He sharpens his sword, eats three days’ food in one day and evaluates everything directly in terms of usefulness. The Turkish self-image is constructed in a practical, durable and action-oriented manner.

In contrast to this practical and active attitude, figures such as Şen-Ma open a more indirect, intellectual and conceptual field of discourse (Atsız 2010). The image of the Chinese sage appears here in opposition to the Turkish warrior character. However, this opposition is not a simple belittlement because the novel does not devalue Chinese thought. It presents it at certain moments as a field that arouses curiosity but is not directly connected to practical life. As a result, the idea of the “impracticality of philosophy” settles into the narrative. The narrative function of these dialogues does not define the character of Yamtar only as a warrior. At the same time, he turns into a figure who makes his own limits more visible when he comes into contact with thought. The Chinese hetero-image is constructed here through wisdom and indirect thinking. The Turkish self-image, on the other hand, becomes clear through practical power, bravery and action. For this reason, the scene in the novel activates the motifs of wisdom, Chinese image and Turkish self-image together.

3.2.2. Language/Translation and the Transmission of Meaning

One of the important aspects of the novel is that approaching Chinese thought is indirectly presented as being dependent on knowledge of language. The fact that the Chinese horse servants speak in their own language and that what they say is understood by Çalık shows that knowing the language is decisive not only in terms of interaction, but also in terms of power relations (Atsız 2010). İşbara Alp does not know the Chinese language. However, Çalık knows it and conveys what is happening. As a result, meaning circulates not directly, but through translation.

In the novel, language is shown not as an ordinary tool, but as an intermediary field between power and knowledge. Understanding a Chinese individual, deciphering his intention and sensing danger become possible through language. For this reason, knowing the language becomes not only a cultural advantage, but also a political and existential necessity. At the same time, it is indirectly shown that access to Chinese thought also comes not directly, but as translated and transmitted knowledge. In this respect, Chinese philosophy is not narrated in the novel as an abstract system. The novel attempts to describe it as a worldview embedded in and dependent on language.

In terms of narrative function, these scenes in the novel do not define the Chinese image merely as the “other”. They define it as a subject possessing power through language and discourse. The Turkish self-image, on the other hand, protects itself while trying to penetrate this language. It displays a structure that is suspicious and alert. Therefore, these narrative sections are at the centre of the motifs of language/translation and Chinese image.

3.2.3. The Epic Construction of the Poetics of Death

In Bozkurtların Ölümü, death is not reflected through an inward-looking and tranquil philosophical interpretation as in Esirler. Instead, it is treated more within the framework of epic endurance and exaltation. At the beginning of the novel, there is the narrative of the storm, lightning, lost horsemen and dead soldiers. It directly associates death with the mercilessness of nature. Nevertheless, the narrative does not reflect these deaths with a feeling of defeat. On the contrary, it presents them with a sense of endurance and chosenness. İşbara Alp’s sword becoming sharper through lightning and this being interpreted as God’s favour are presented. Death and disaster are shown at the same time as a sacred trial (Atsız 2010; Puett 2002).

Expressions such as “going to uçmak” (Atsız 2010, p. 24) in the text define death not as non-existence, but as a passage to another plane of existence. Although this thought does not fully resemble the understanding of transformation in Chinese philosophy, death can be removed from being a definite end. Thus, it enables death to be perceived as a form-changing threshold. However, in the novel, this understanding is described not as tranquillity, but as heroism and epic sublimity. Kara Ozan’s utterances turn death into a call for mourning and revenge that activates collective memory. The poetics of death produce not individual consolation, but collective energy of revival. At the imagological level, these scenes are also important. The Turkish self-image is depicted as a structure that encounters death not with fear, but with struggle, and that draws strength from destruction. The Chinese image, on the other hand, is often associated with intrigue, poisoning and the use of indirect power. For this reason, in Bozkurtların Ölümü, death is not only an existential concept, but also the cornerstone of the national and epic narrative. These scenes are particularly decisive in terms of the motifs of life–death, governance and Turkish self-image.

Although the two texts treat Chinese thought under similar headings, they show that they do so through different narrative orientations. In Esirler, wisdom, governance and death are constructed more through intellectual depth, dialogue and internal analysis; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, the same areas are shaped on the axes of epic heroism, cultural opposition and practicality. In one, death appears as calming; in the other, as exalting. In one, wisdom is internal and dialogic; in the other, it is testing and comparative. In one, governance appears as strategic balance; in the other, as a field of power and struggle. Thus, in both texts, Chinese philosophy becomes an active narrative element not only at the thematic level, but also within character construction, the production of conflict and the organisation of discourse.

4. Comparative Discussion

4.1. Motif–Function Matrix

In the works Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü, a motif–function matrix was developed to highlight both the thematic characteristics of motifs associated with Chinese thought and their specific functions within the narrative (Chatman 1978; Bal 2017). Scenes and narrative segments defined by specific codes were evaluated within the framework of this comparative matrix. The intensity scale was used as follows: 0 = absent, 1 = motif, 2 = functional, 3 = used in a constitutive manner:

The first result shown by the tables is that motifs related to Chinese thought are present in both works, but these motifs do not have the same narrative function. Table 1 shows in particular that the motifs of wisdom, life/death and governance appear more intensely in the theatre play Esirler. The interpretation of death as “long and dreamless sleep” (Ali 2020, p. 163) at the opening of the play is not merely a metaphorical expression, but a structure that determines the characters’ way of making sense of the world. Kürşad’s defence of the idea that the struggle must be carried out only “more wisely” (Ali 2020, p. 169) relates action not only to heroism, but also to thought. In this narration, the motifs connected with Chinese thought in Esirler come to the fore as essential elements that construct the intellectual backbone of the text.

Table 1. Intensity and Indicator Distribution of Chinese Philosophical Motifs.

Motif	Indicators	Esirler	Bozkurtların Ölümü
Wisdom	Sage/philosopher figure, advice, interpretation of life and death	3	2
Wu-wei/inaction	Non-intervention, indirect guidance, gardener figure, measured governance	2–3	1
Life/death	“Long and dreamless sleep”, going to uçmak, transformation, reinterpretation of death	3	3
Governance	Emperor, minister, symbolic ruler, katun, order, strategy	3	2
Chinese image	Chinese katun, Chinese servant, palace, philosopher, intrigue, ceremony	2–3	3
Turkish self-image	Resistance against captivity, bravery, practicality, warriorhood, desire for freedom	2–3	3
Language/translation	Suggestive expression, much meaning with few words, knowing the Chinese language, translation	2	2–3

The narrative functions and imagological comparison in Table 2 show that the same motifs in Bozkurtların Ölümü often remain within the epic structure. It shows that they operate on a secondary plane that supports or tests the narrative of heroism. The speeches of Yamtar and Pars, the atmosphere of distrust constructed around the Chinese katun and Chinese servants, and the association of Chinese figures with intrigue and indirect power clearly harden the hetero-image in the novel. In Table 1, it is seen that knowing the Chinese language means knowledge and power. Çalık’s function as translator gains special importance in the narrative as a means of access to this knowledge. For this reason, the inability of those who do not know Chinese to produce meaning directly positions China in the novel not only as a field of threat or hostility, but also as an epistemic and cultural field.

Table 2. Narrative Functions and Imagological Comparison of Chinese Philosophical Motifs.

Motif	Narrative Function	Imagological Effect	Similarity/Divergence
Wisdom	In Esirler, it opens an ethical and intellectual horizon; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, it turns into a field of knowledge tested by practicality.	China is constructed as a field of thought and teaching.	In Ali, it is a constitutive ethical catalyst; in Atsız, it is testing and comparative.
Wu-wei/inaction	In Esirler, the Taoist motif is evident; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, it is indirectly suggested.	China appears as a field of governance associated with ritual and measure.	It is more evident in Ali; in Atsız, it is secondary and indirect.
Life/death	In Esirler, it is an intellectual threshold; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, it is a junction that constructs collective memory.	Death forms a node of meaning in both works.	The commonality is strong; the difference is in tone and function.
Governance	In Esirler, reason, planning and strategy; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, khaganate and war order come to the fore.	China is drawn as bureaucratic/ceremonial; the Turkish side is drawn on the axis of power and movement.	In Ali, it is a more explicit field of discussion; in Atsız, it is functional within the epic structure.
Chinese image	In Esirler, it is both intellectual and oppressive; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, it is a field of intrigue and threat.	The hetero-image becomes evident.	In Ali, it is more layered; in Atsız, it produces a sharper opposition.
Turkish self-image	In Esirler, ethical awakening and freedom; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, bravery and movement are central.	The auto-image is strengthened.	In Ali, collective awakening; in Atsız, epic heroism comes to the fore.
Language/translation	In Esirler, multiplicity of meaning; in Bozkurtların Ölümü, it produces an issue of knowledge and power.	China appears as a civilisation of language and knowledge.	In Ali, it is more stylistic; in Atsız, it is more connected to the plot.

There is a particularly striking commonality between the two works in the motif of life/death. The data in Table 1 show that this motif is present at a high level in both works. However, the difference in narrative function revealed by Table 2 shows that this commonality does not produce the same poetic result. In Esirler, death opens a field of intellectual tranquillity and acceptance against fear. In contrast, in Bozkurtların Ölümü, death functions on the axis of epic exaltation by combining with “going to uçmak” (Atsız 2010, p. 24), mourning, revenge and a sense of community. Therefore, death is a central junction of meaning in both texts. However, in one it has a consolatory function, while in the other it has a mobilising function.

The language/translation axis is one of the most striking areas of divergence between the two texts. In Esirler, Chinese thought is incorporated into the style primarily through aphoristic density, allusive narration, and contrasting propositions, whereas in Bozkurtların Ölümü, language itself becomes a direct component of the narrative. The expression “I do not know the Chinese language” (Atsız 2010, p. 32) and Çalık’s function as a translator clearly reveal that access to thought and knowledge is constructed through language. For this reason, in Ali, philosophical density appears more as a form of expression and thinking, whereas in Atsız it appears as a problem of access to knowledge, power and the production of meaning.

4.2. Comparison of the Chinese (Hetero-Image) and the Turk (Self-Image)

In terms of imagology, both texts mutually construct the “Chinese” as a hetero-image and the “Turk” as a self-image. The difference in these two works lies in the tone and depth of this construction. In Esirler, the Chinese world is drawn together with the palace, ceremony, empire and intellectual tradition. The play depicts China not only as an order of oppression, but also as a ceremonial structure woven with philosophers, gardeners, princesses and complex palace relations. Therefore, the Chinese image here is not single-layered. The oppressive political structure and philosophical density stand side by side.

In Bozkurtların Ölümü, however, the Chinese image is shaped much more clearly around intrigue, poison, palace cunning and the use of indirect power (Atsız 2010). The issue of İçing Katun’s poisoning, the secret joy of the Chinese servants and the distrust felt by Turkish warriors towards the Chinese harden this image. Here, the Chinese is associated not with the body, but rather with the mind, trickery and bureaucracy; in contrast, the Turk is identified with action, courage and movement. This opposition intensifies on the axes of mind/body and palace/steppe.

The Turkish self-image also appears in different forms in the two texts. In Esirler, the Turks are reflected as a society living under captivity but thinking of freedom. In addition, Turkish society appears as a collective that questions death and life and begins to awaken ethically. In Kürşad’s speeches, the freedom of the steppe is constructed in contrast to the narrowness of life that collides with Chinese obstacles. The Turkish self-image here appears not only as warrior-like, but also as a community that grasps the idea of freedom.

In Bozkurtların Ölümü, however, the Turkish self-image is defined more directly through bravery, endurance, warriorhood and practical reason. Yamtar’s attitude, İşbara Alp’s composure in the face of war and disaster, and the community’s being carried, through Kara Ozan’s utterance, towards a common sense of mourning and revenge shape the Turkish self-image within an epic and collective framework. Within this structure, philosophy is not directly at the centre. It is a field tested by practical usefulness and measured against heroism.

In line with these reasons we have stated, the results that emerge at the imagological level are as follows:

• Sabahattin Ali establishes a critical but dialogic relationship with Chinese thought. He treats the Chinese image not only as the other, but also as a carrier of thought.
• Nihal Atsız uses the Chinese image more clearly in order to produce opposition; through this opposition, he strengthens the epic and national quality of the Turkish self-image.

Thus, in Ali, Chinese thought becomes a ground for dialogue, whereas in Atsız it becomes a field of tension and testing.

4.3. Narrative Functions and Stylistic Differences

One of the main distinctions between the two texts is how the motifs belonging to Chinese thought are carried within the narrative (Genette 1980; Chatman 1978). Since Esirler is a theatre text, it establishes a dialogue-centred, polyphonic and dense structure. The issues of wisdom, death and governance are opened directly within the verbal exchange of the characters. The conversations over the dead body of the Sage include Siyaohi’s references to Yin-Yang and Shang-Ti, and Kürşad’s suggestions based on strategic thinking. Thus, it enables thought to become visible within the flow of dramatic speech. For this reason, Chinese philosophy here turns into a stylistic principle that determines the rhetoric of the dialogues and the intellectual tempo of the play, rather than merely being a theme.

Bozkurtların Ölümü, on the other hand, is based on an epic narrator, a linear historical flow and a hero-centred plot. In Nihal Atsız’s novel, Chinese thought is concentrated more around certain characters and narrative nodes. The type of Şen-Ma, Çalık’s knowledge of the Chinese language, the scenes concerning Chinese servants and the Chinese katun axis are the scattered but effective focal points of the intellectual field. Since the basic rhythm of the novel progresses through war, raids, changes of khagan and collective movement, philosophical motifs do not interrupt the epic flow; on the contrary, they take place within it as a testing threshold.

In terms of style, aphorism, antithesis and irony are perceived in Esirler. The response “Everything is more frightening than death” to the statement “Nothing is more frightening than death” (Ali 2020, p. 162) shows that meaning is constructed through opposing propositions. This density supports the suggestive narrative style associated with Chinese thought. In Bozkurtların Ölümü, however, maxims, heroic discourse, utterances sung to the accompaniment of the kopuz and action scenes come to the fore. Here, language creates emotional and epic elevation rather than producing dense philosophical opposition. This difference shows that the texts treat the same motifs through different generic logics.

Clear differences are also immediately observed in the two works in terms of character functions. In Esirler, figures such as the sage, the philosopher, the minister and the princess are the main characters who carry intellectual signs. These characters do not merely advance the flow of events. They also give meaning to it. In Bozkurtların Ölümü, however, while figures such as Kür Şad and İşbara Alp rise as myth-making heroes, figures similar to Şen-Ma function more as instructive, testing and comparative figures. For these reasons, while in Ali thought constructs the justification for action, in Atsız action turns into the criterion that tests the value of thought.

As a result, in Esirler, Chinese philosophy functions as a constitutive component of the dialogues and intellectual tension. In this way, it produces a dramaturgy of ethical–political awakening. Bozkurtların Ölümü, on the other hand, uses the same intellectual elements as the testing background of epic action and the national self-image. Thus, the same motifs become, in Ali, a narrative motor that legitimises action through intellectual density; in Atsız, they become a comparative mechanism that highlights action and the narrative of heroism.

5. Method

5.1. Corpus and Data

The works examined in this study are Sabahattin Ali’s theatre play Esirler (Ali 2020) and Nihal Atsız’s novel Bozkurtların Ölümü (Atsız 2010). Esirler was first published in 1936, while Bozkurtların Ölümü was published in 1946. Esirler narrates the quest for freedom of the Turks under captivity, palace relations and emotional–political tensions (Ali 2020). Bozkurtların Ölümü, on the other hand, treats the struggle of the Göktürks against China, internal developments within the state and the national resistance shaped around Kürşad in a broader and more epic framework (Atsız 2010). For this reason, the corpus is limited to two texts that deal with the same historical process, place Kürşad at the centre as a common figure and treat Chinese–Turkish relations within the same geographical universe.

5.2. Notation and Principles of Writing

In the works used within the scope of the study, it has been observed that there is consistency in the spelling of proper names and concepts related to Chinese philosophy and history. In both texts, both “Lao-Tzu/Lao-Tse” and different forms transferred from Chinese sources are included. In addition, in order to ensure unity, standardised usages will be preferred in the study as much as possible. In historical place names, the form Siganfu/Si-Gan-Fu will be preserved in accordance with the context of the text.

5.3. Coding Scheme (Analytical Categories)

Before conducting detailed readings of the texts, the key motifs and functional domains to be examined were identified (Bal 2017). Taking into account the primary axes of analysis, seven main analytical categories were established: “wisdom, *wu-wei* (non-action), life and death, governance, the image of the Chinese, the Turkish self-image, and language/translation.” These categories aim not only to trace the intellectual motifs present in the texts but also to reveal their manifestations and functions within the narrative (Prince 1982; Rimmon-Kenan 2002). Within the framework of these categories, the conceptual elements in the texts were evaluated not merely at a thematic level, but also in terms of their functions within character construction, the development of the plot, and the structure of the discourse.

5.4. Close Reading Procedure

In the study, scenes and passages with high intellectual density will be selected for each work and subjected to close reading:

• For Esirler, the opening speeches over the dead sage, the dialogues between the philosopher Siyaohi and other characters, the scenes developed on death and life, and the sections in which the understanding of governance appears constitute the basic structure of analysis of the research.
• For Bozkurtların Ölümü, especially the dialogues between Şen-Ma and Yamtar, the hunger-satiety-centred scenes that establish Yamtar’s relationship with philosophy, the sections in which death is conceived as a change of form, and the passages in which the link between the Chinese language and philosophy is treated will be selected.

In each work, firstly, the place of the scene in the plot will be determined; then keywords, oppositions, aphoristic expressions, mockery or irony elements will be identified. These elements will be matched with the relevant analytical category, and the effect of the motif in question on character construction, the flow of events and the form of discourse will be analysed. At the final stage, how the passage frames Chinese and Turkish images will be evaluated.

5.5. Comparative Synthesis

After the textual analyses, the two works will be evaluated comparatively in terms of motif–function relations. Both works proceed from similar historical material. However, the two works differ in terms of the ways in which they place Chinese philosophy into fiction. For this reason, the following criteria will be taken into account in the comparative synthesis in particular:

• What cultural and intellectual role the figure of wisdom has in both works;
• How the understanding of governance is constructed around the symbolic ruler, minister and conception of order;
• How death is interpreted in a consolatory, cyclical or epic manner;
• How philosophy is associated with language, translation and suggestive expression;
• Through which narrative devices the opposition between the Chinese and the Turk is produced.

Thus, similarities and divergences will be summarised systematically not only at the thematic level, but also at the level of narrative function.

5.6. Reliability, Limitations and Ethics

Since this study offers a qualitative analysis based on hermeneutics and close reading, the subjective nature of interpretation in the study is a methodological limitation (Ricoeur 1976). In order to reduce this limitation, the concepts will be interpreted together with their intra-textual contexts and by taking into account historical relations concerning Chinese philosophy and Turkish–Chinese relations. In order to reduce the risk of anachronism, the historical and conceptual framework explained in the texts of the works will be taken as the basis rather than modern popular interpretations. The quotations used in the study will be kept quite short to observe copyright limits. Long passages will be conveyed by summarising when necessary.

6. Conclusions

This study has comparatively examined how the Chinese philosophical thought tradition is represented on the axes of wisdom, governance and death in Esirler, the play of Sabahattin Ali, who is a very popular writer in Türkiye, and Bozkurtların Ölümü, the novel of Nihal Atsız, one of the early writers of Turkish nationalism (Korkmaz 1997; Landau 1995; Uzer 2016). In line with the analyses carried out, it is clear that both works share the same historical universe and a similar field of cultural contact. Nevertheless, it is also clearly seen that they do not use Chinese thought in the same way. Elements related to Chinese philosophy do not remain merely at the level of decorative or historical details in the two texts. In the works, they become functional narrative components that affect character construction, the order of conflict, the form of discourse and the production of meaning. As a result of the examination, it is seen that the motifs belonging to Chinese thought are presented more explicitly in Esirler. It has also been observed that the motifs are used more intensely and more constitutively in the work. In particular, wisdom, the life-death relationship, the understanding of measured governance and suggestive expression determine the intellectual backbone of the play. The interpretation of death as “long and dreamless sleep” (Ali 2020, p. 163) is not merely a metaphorical expression, but shapes the existential and ethical horizon of the text. Similarly, the understanding of strategy, balance and indirect guidance carries the idea of governance beyond the use of crude force; thus, Chinese thought becomes an essential source that nourishes the political and philosophical depth of the text. For this reason, in Esirler, China is constructed not only as an external other, but also as a field of thought, measure and questioning.

In contrast, Chinese thought remains more limited in Bozkurtların Ölümü. Nevertheless, thought becomes visible within an effective narrative field. In the novel, the hetero-image is hardened through the elements of the Chinese sage, language, translation, intrigue and indirect power. The Turkish self-image gains strength on the axes of bravery, movement, endurance and practical reason. Here, wisdom functions not as a directly constitutive ethical centre, but rather as a comparative ground that tests the Turkish warrior identity and makes its boundaries more visible. Death, too, unlike the tranquil and intellectual acceptance in Esirler, turns into the source of an epic rise, collective memory and the energy of struggle. In this way, similar motifs are used in the novel mostly as tools that support the epic structure and sharpen the national narrative.

One of the most important results put forward by the study is that the Chinese hetero-image and the Turkish self-image are constructed mutually in both works. However, the tone and depth of this construction mostly change. Sabahattin Ali establishes a critical but dialogic relationship with Chinese thought and does not reduce the Chinese image only to the field of oppression and power. He also evaluates it as an intellectual carrier. Nihal Atsız, however, uses the Chinese image within a more explicit order of opposition. Through this opposition, he strengthens the epic, heroic and collective quality of the Turkish self-image. The basic difference in these works is related not only to the ideological orientations of the two writers, but also to their generic preferences. The dialogic and dense structure of the theatre text and the epic and action-centred fiction of the novel directly affect the function of Chinese thought within the narrative.

The differences in the imagery of both authors and their underlying convergence despite these differences are linked to the perspective Turkish intellectuals adopt toward the East and the epistemological framework that shapes their perception of China. This is because Turkish intellectuals, lacking knowledge of the Chinese language and attempting to understand China through translations, evaluate the country using the conceptual tools of Western Orientalism. Since the Turkish view of China remains dependent on Orientalist knowledge-production mechanisms generated by the West, it produces a form of “transferred” Orientalism. While the Turkish perspective on China is frequently shaped by a quest to understand the self and the East, its methodology and language draw heavily from Orientalist sources; consequently, it operates along a complex boundary between Orientalism and self-Orientalism. Nevertheless, despite these indirect methodological tools and linguistic limitations, the presence of Chinese thought in Turkish literature cannot be dismissed as merely a matter of reductive othering.

In this context, the main argument of the study shows that China in Turkish literature should be evaluated not only as a historical rival or cultural other, but also as an intellectual field of contact (Barfield 1989; Beckwith 2009; Beller and Leerssen 2007). The functions assumed by elements such as wisdom, governance, death, language and suggestive expression in two different literary genres reveal that Chinese philosophy left more visible and more effective traces in Republican-period Turkish literature than is generally assumed. In this respect, this research opens a new ground of discussion regarding the reception of Chinese thought in Turkish literature and also proposes an integrated reading model that brings together comparative literature, imagology and philosophical hermeneutics. As a result, Esirler and Bozkurtların Ölümü are two important texts that transform Chinese philosophy in different narrative and ideological directions from the same historical universe. In one, Chinese thought functions as a constitutive field of thought that deepens ethical–political awakening; in the other, it functions as a comparative background that tests and sharpens the narrative of heroism. This situation shows that Chinese philosophy in Turkish literature is not a one-directional, fixed and superficial representation, but produces a multilayered form of reception that changes according to the genre, ideological orientation and narrative strategy of the text.