Sports

21 pages, 959 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Weighted Vest Sprint Training on Mid-Acceleration and Reactive Strength in Post-PHV Soccer Players

by Nikola Stojanović, Branislav Majkić, Jadranka Vlašić, Valentin Barišić and Damir Pekas

Sports 2026, 14(3), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030124 - 23 Mar 2026

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Background: This study examined the effects of an individualized weighted vest sprint training program on sprint performance and countermovement jump (CMJ) outcomes in post-peak height velocity (PHV) male youth soccer players while accounting for maturation status. Methods: Fifty players (mean age 17.76 ± [...] Read more.

Background: This study examined the effects of an individualized weighted vest sprint training program on sprint performance and countermovement jump (CMJ) outcomes in post-peak height velocity (PHV) male youth soccer players while accounting for maturation status. Methods: Fifty players (mean age 17.76 ± 0.95 years) were randomly assigned to a weighted vest sprint group (WVG; n = 25) or a traditional unloaded sprint group (TS; n = 25). Sprint performance (5, 10, 20, and 30 m) and CMJ-derived variables (jump height, peak power output, reactive strength index modified (RSI-modified), and eccentric rate of force development) were assessed before and after an 11-week intervention performed twice weekly, with the WVG completing sprint drills while wearing a weighted vest (~11% body mass). Results: Weighted vest sprint training produced greater improvements in 10 m sprint performance and RSI-modified (d = 1.37 and 1.55, respectively). However, after Benjamini–Hochberg adjustment for multiple comparisons, the effects were no longer statistically significant and should therefore be interpreted with caution. Maturity offset did not meaningfully moderate training-induced adaptations. Conclusions: These findings suggest that weighted vest sprint training may provide potential benefits for mid-acceleration performance and reactive strength in post-PHV youth soccer players, although the magnitude of these effects remains uncertain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players: 2nd Edition)

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9 pages, 208 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Acute Caffeine Intake on Maximal Aerobic Speed in University Soccer Players Assessed by the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test

by Diego Camilo García-Chaves, Juan Pablo Fernandez Zapata, Tatiana Oyaga Álvarez, Nelson Ortiz Escobar, Alfonso Villegas Mazo and Luisa Fernanda Corredor-Serrano

Sports 2026, 14(3), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030123 - 23 Mar 2026

Viewed by 719

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of acute caffeine intake on maximal aerobic speed (MAS) assessed using the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test (IFT) in university soccer players. An experimental, randomized, double-blind, crossover design was employed, involving 26 male university [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of acute caffeine intake on maximal aerobic speed (MAS) assessed using the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test (IFT) in university soccer players. An experimental, randomized, double-blind, crossover design was employed, involving 26 male university team players (n = 26). Each participant completed the test under two conditions: caffeine supplementation (220 mg; 2.85 ± 0.27 mg/kg, range 2.60–3.16 mg/kg) and placebo, separated by a 72 h washout period. The final running speed achieved (VIFT) was used as an estimator of MAS. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics, normality testing, and paired Student’s t-test, with a significance level set at p < 0.05. The results revealed a significant improvement in VIFT under the caffeine condition (19.94 ± 1.67 km/h) compared with placebo (18.72 ± 1.50 km/h), with a mean difference of 1.22 km/h (6.5%) and a large effect size (dz = 1.24; p < 0.001). It is concluded that acute caffeine intake was associated with a significant improvement in intermittent aerobic performance in university soccer players under the conditions of the present study, suggesting that caffeine may represent a potentially useful strategy in similar applied contexts. Full article

17 pages, 724 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preseason Body Composition Phenotypes and In-Season Injury Burden in Male Professional Basketball: A Retrospective Cohort Study

by Javier Pérez-Murillo, Pedro Cotolí-Suarez, Borja Ricart-Luna, Vicente Sebastià Alcacer, Álvaro Domínguez García, Marcelino Pérez-Bermejo, María Teresa Murillo-Llorente and Eloy Jaenada-Carrilero

Sports 2026, 14(3), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030122 - 20 Mar 2026

Viewed by 823

Abstract

Professional basketball entails high physical demands and a complex injury profile in which injury burden and time-loss distribution critically affect player availability. This study explored the association between preseason anthropometric body composition and in-season injury burden in male professional basketball and explored body [...] Read more.

Professional basketball entails high physical demands and a complex injury profile in which injury burden and time-loss distribution critically affect player availability. This study explored the association between preseason anthropometric body composition and in-season injury burden in male professional basketball and explored body phenotypes linked to greater injury accumulation. A retrospective longitudinal cohort design was applied using official injury records and standardized ISAK anthropometric assessments collected during preseason. Players from two male professional teams (first team, ACB; second team, LEB Plata) were included. Outcomes were the number of injuries and observed days lost during the season. Associations were assessed using Pearson correlations, principal component analysis (PCA), team-stratified logistic regression, and unsupervised k-means clustering. Injury burden demonstrated a highly skewed distribution, with a small subset of players accounting for a large proportion of total days lost. Preseason adiposity markers showed strong internal coherence, with PCA identifying a dominant component reflecting an adiposity gradient. Higher preseason body fat percentage was associated with a greater likelihood of high injury burden (≥3 injuries/season) in both teams. Clustering revealed two phenotypes: a higher-adiposity, higher-burden profile and a lower-adiposity, lower-burden profile. These exploratory findings suggest that preseason body composition, particularly adiposity, may be related to injury burden in male professional basketball. However, given the limited sample size and exploratory design, the results should be interpreted cautiously and considered hypothesis-generating. Precompetitive body phenotyping may therefore provide preliminary information for identifying players potentially at elevated risk of recurrent injury accumulation and reduced competitive availability. Full article

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24 pages, 824 KB

Open AccessProtocol

Ageing, Sex Differences, and REDs Risk in Endurance Runners: An Integrated Cross-Sectional Study Protocol

by Ľudmila Oreská, Barbora Kundeková, Lukáš Varga, Katarína Stebelová, Monika Okuliarová, Juraj Payer and Milan Sedliak

Sports 2026, 14(3), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030121 - 19 Mar 2026

Viewed by 872

Abstract

Endurance performance is influenced by age- and sex-specific physiological determinants, while emerging evidence indicates an increasing prevalence of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) among both young and master endurance runners. Despite its clinical relevance, limited data exist on how long-term endurance training [...] Read more.

Endurance performance is influenced by age- and sex-specific physiological determinants, while emerging evidence indicates an increasing prevalence of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) among both young and master endurance runners. Despite its clinical relevance, limited data exist on how long-term endurance training modulates REDs risk, skeletal muscle characteristics, and physiological ageing in comparison with inactive individuals. Methods: This cross-sectional study protocol will examine 112 participants stratified by sex, age (20–35 vs. 65–80 years), and training status (endurance runners vs. inactive controls). Cardiorespiratory fitness (VO₂max) is defined as the primary outcome. Secondary outcomes include body composition, musculoskeletal function, biochemical and hormonal markers, and REDs-related screening variables. Assessments will comprise cardiorespiratory testing, DXA-based bone and body composition analysis, isometric knee dynamometry, mobility testing, validated REDs screening tools (LEAF-Q, LEAM-Q, and IOC REDs CAT2), seven-day dietary and training monitoring, venous blood sampling, and skeletal muscle biopsies from the vastus lateralis. Results: This study is designed to generate an integrated overview of physiological, nutritional, metabolic, and muscle-cell characteristics across sex-, age-, and training-specific subgroups. Conclusions: This protocol provides comprehensive insight into how ageing and sex influence endurance physiology and REDs susceptibility and whether long-term endurance training preserves functional capacity across the lifespan. The findings aim to support evidence-based screening, prevention, and targeted interventions for REDs in endurance athletes. Full article

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21 pages, 500 KB

Open AccessArticle

Somatometric, Training, and Behavioral Profiles of Resistance Training Practitioners and Recreational Exercisers in Greece: A Multivariate Comparative Study

by Ioannis Tsartsapakis, Aglaia Zafeiroudi, Athanasia Chatzipanteli and Maria Gerou

Sports 2026, 14(3), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030120 - 19 Mar 2026

Viewed by 370

Abstract

This cross-sectional study compared somatometric, training, and behavioral characteristics of adult exercisers in Greece, contrasting self-identified resistance-training practitioners with recreational exercisers. A total of 1187 adults completed a structured questionnaire capturing demographics, self-reported height and weight (BMI), weekly training frequency, session duration, competition [...] Read more.

This cross-sectional study compared somatometric, training, and behavioral characteristics of adult exercisers in Greece, contrasting self-identified resistance-training practitioners with recreational exercisers. A total of 1187 adults completed a structured questionnaire capturing demographics, self-reported height and weight (BMI), weekly training frequency, session duration, competition participation, and self-reported use of performance-enhancing substances. Given non-normal distributions, analyses used nonparametric tests, binary logistic regression, and two-step cluster analysis based on the elbow method. Resistance-training practitioners reported higher BMI, greater weekly training frequency, and longer session duration than recreational exercisers (all p < 0.001). Substance use was more prevalent among resistance-training practitioners and exhibited a marked gender asymmetry, with anabolic-agent use concentrated among men. A logistic regression predicting competition participation identified age, BMI, gender, and education as significant predictors; the model explained a modest proportion of variance (Nagelkerke R² = 0.10). Cluster analysis produced four distinct participant profiles differing in BMI, training intensity, and behavioral orientation. These results indicate systematic somatometric and behavioral differences between exercise orientations and demonstrate the utility of multivariate profiling for characterizing heterogeneity in exercise engagement. Findings should be interpreted cautiously because all anthropometric and substance-use measures were self-reported, and BMI cannot distinguish lean from fat mass in resistance-trained populations; future research should prioritize representative sampling and objective somatometric assessment. Full article

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21 pages, 1568 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Eccentric vs. Concentric Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials on Performance and Health Benefits Across Diverse Populations

by Carolina Oassé Paulafreitas Maia, Diego Ignácio Vanezuela Pérez, Rafael Pereira Azevedo Teixeira, Ciro José Brito, Esteban Aedo-Muñoz and Bianca Miarka

Sports 2026, 14(3), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030119 - 18 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4229

Abstract

Eccentric (ECC) and concentric (CON) muscle training produce distinct physiological responses, with potential implications for musculoskeletal, metabolic, and cardiovascular health. Therefore, our objective is to synthesize evidence from randomized controlled trials comparing the effects of ECC and CON training on strength, hypertrophy, metabolic [...] Read more.

Eccentric (ECC) and concentric (CON) muscle training produce distinct physiological responses, with potential implications for musculoskeletal, metabolic, and cardiovascular health. Therefore, our objective is to synthesize evidence from randomized controlled trials comparing the effects of ECC and CON training on strength, hypertrophy, metabolic function, and cardiovascular health across diverse adult populations. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines and registered in PROSPERO (ID: CRD42024627600). The review included eight randomized controlled trials, pooling data from a total of 441 participants. For strength-related outcomes, six studies (n = 322) were included; for hypertrophy, four studies (n = 210); and for cardiovascular measures, three studies (n = 154). Studies were assessed using the TESTEX scale. Standardized mean differences and random-effects models were applied (p ≤ 0.05). Results indicated that ECC training consistently produced moderate to large improvements in muscle strength (pooled ES = 0.95; I² = 78.6%) and hypertrophy (pooled ES = 0.60; I² = 62.3%), particularly in populations with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and older adults. The rate of force development (RFD) showed large effect sizes for ECC (RFD50: ES = 0.97; RFD100: ES = 0.95) but minimal change for CON (RFD50: ES = 0.04; RFD100: ES = 0.10). Both ECC and CON showed minimal effects on cardiovascular outcomes (heart rate and blood pressure: pooled ES range = −0.16 to 0.00; I² = 41.8%) and limited tendon remodeling (ES = −0.18). In conclusion, ECC exercise demonstrates superior benefits for improving muscular strength, hypertrophy, and power across varied populations, particularly those with clinical conditions such as COPD. Its impact on cardiovascular health and tendon properties, however, appears limited. These findings support the integration of ECC modalities into targeted rehabilitation and performance programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Performance: Insights for Athletes and Beyond)

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9 pages, 206 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sensory Processing Patterns and Motor Proficiency in Youth Football Players: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Sultan Akel and Çiğdem Öksüz

Sports 2026, 14(3), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030118 - 17 Mar 2026

Viewed by 394

Abstract

Background: Sensory processing and motor proficiency contribute to movement regulation in adolescent athletes. While motor competence has been widely studied in youth football, the role of trait-level sensory processing remains underexplored. This study examined associations between sensory processing patterns and motor proficiency in [...] Read more.

Background: Sensory processing and motor proficiency contribute to movement regulation in adolescent athletes. While motor competence has been widely studied in youth football, the role of trait-level sensory processing remains underexplored. This study examined associations between sensory processing patterns and motor proficiency in adolescent football players. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 116 male youth football players (mean age: 14.16 ± 1.55 years) from a professional academy completed the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile and the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition, Brief Form (BOT-2 BF). Spearman correlations were computed across 36 sensory–motor comparisons, with false discovery rate (FDR) correction applied. Partial correlations controlled for age and years of training. Results: After FDR correction, sensation seeking showed a moderate positive association with fine motor precision (ρ = 0.49, p < 0.001). Low registration demonstrated a large negative association with fine motor integration (ρ = −0.61, p < 0.001) and small-to-moderate negative associations with bilateral coordination and balance (|ρ| = 0.27–0.32). These associations remained significant after adjustment. Conclusions: Sensory processing patterns were differentially associated with coordination- and balance-related motor domains. Findings should be considered exploratory and warrant longitudinal and sport-specific investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving Health and Performance in Football)

12 pages, 1529 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological and Perceptual Internal Load During Kitesurfing Under Real-World Sea Conditions

by Nicola Mancini, Nicola Mangione, Siria Mancini, Vlad Teodor Grosu, Emilia Florina Grosu, Mariasole Antonietta Guerriero, Dan Monea, Giovanni Messina, Marcellino Monda, Rita Polito and Fiorenzo Moscatelli

Sports 2026, 14(3), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030117 - 17 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 530

Abstract

Background: Kitesurfing is a wind-propelled water sport performed in highly variable environmental conditions. Scientific evidence describing internal load under standardized ecological sea constraints remains limited. Aim: This study aimed to characterize cardiovascular and perceptual responses during a standardized kitesurfing session and to examine [...] Read more.

Background: Kitesurfing is a wind-propelled water sport performed in highly variable environmental conditions. Scientific evidence describing internal load under standardized ecological sea constraints remains limited. Aim: This study aimed to characterize cardiovascular and perceptual responses during a standardized kitesurfing session and to examine associations among heart rate-based internal load indices, session rating of perceived exertion, and global navigation satellite system-derived external output variables. Methods: A total of 112 male recreational kitesurfers (32.1 ± 6.8 years) completed a 40–50 min standardized session under monitored wind conditions (17–22 knots) along a predefined approximately 800 m course. Heart rate was continuously recorded, and session rating of perceived exertion (Borg Category-Ratio 10 scale) was collected 30 ± 5 min post-session. Training impulse, mean percentage of maximal heart rate, and session rating of perceived exertion load were calculated. Pearson correlation analyses with bootstrapping (1000 resamples) and five percent trimming were performed, with statistical significance set at 0.05. Results: Sessions were performed at 78.4 ± 9.1 percent of maximal heart rate. Training impulse and mean percentage of maximal heart rate were strongly associated (correlation coefficient = 0.90, probability value < 0.001), reflecting the shared heart rate-based structure of these metrics. Training impulse showed a moderate association with session rating of perceived exertion load (correlation coefficient = 0.46, probability value < 0.001). No significant associations were observed between internal load indices and global navigation satellite system-derived mean speed (correlation coefficient = −0.14, probability value = 0.149) or distance (correlation coefficient = 0.06, probability value = 0.555). Sensitivity analyses confirmed the stability of the observed associations. Conclusions: Under standardized ecological sea conditions, kitesurfing sessions were characterized by sustained high submaximal cardiovascular intensity. Heart rate-based and perceptual measures showed consistent associations within this protocol, whereas global navigation satellite system-derived external outputs were not significantly related to internal load indices. Within the limits of this cross-sectional ecological design, the combined use of one heart rate-based indicator and session rating of perceived exertion offers a coherent and practically interpretable description of session internal load in open-water kitesurfing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comprehensive Study of Aquatic Sports)

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23 pages, 3335 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Structure of Repeated On-Ice Efforts and Its Dependence on the Aerobic Capacity of a Hockey Player

by Tomasz Gabrys, Radoslaw Chruscinski, Anna Pilis, Arkadiusz Stanula and Kazimierz Mikolajec

Sports 2026, 14(3), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030116 - 17 Mar 2026

Viewed by 771

Abstract

Background: Ice hockey is characterized by repeated short-duration, high-intensity efforts interspersed with brief recovery periods, requiring a complex interaction of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The aim of this study was to determine the energetic structure of repeated high-intensity on-ice sprint exercise in [...] Read more.

Background: Ice hockey is characterized by repeated short-duration, high-intensity efforts interspersed with brief recovery periods, requiring a complex interaction of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The aim of this study was to determine the energetic structure of repeated high-intensity on-ice sprint exercise in ice hockey players by quantifying the relative contributions of the oxidative, glycolytic and ATP–PCr energy systems. Methods: 14 male semi-professional ice hockey players performed the 30–15_IIT followed by the Repeated High-Intensity Effort (RHIE) on-ice. Oxygen uptake was measured breath-by-breath, blood lactate concentration and energy system contributions were estimated using a three-component PCr–La–O₂ model. Results: The RHIE on-ice was characterized by a dominant aerobic contribution (63.1 ± 2.6%), followed by phosphagen metabolism (29.8 ± 2.9%), with a relatively small glycolytic contribution (7.4 ± 1.5%). Conclusions: No significant relationships were observed between maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) and the RHIE performance parameters, energy system contributions or lactate responses, except for a moderate relationship between absolute VO_2max and absolute aerobic work. In contrast, parameters determined at the anaerobic threshold showed more consistent relationships with absolute metabolic work. These findings indicate that repeated high-intensity on-ice performance in ice hockey is largely independent of VO_2max and is more closely related to individual energetic profiles and metabolic tolerance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Competition and Sports Training: A Challenge for Public Health)

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11 pages, 539 KB

Open AccessArticle

Closed vs. Open-Skill Contexts in Basketball: Insights into Reactive and Nonreactive Short Distance Sprint Performance More Closely Aligned with Game Demands

by Asaf Shalom, Roni Gottlieb and Julio Calleja-Gonzalez

Sports 2026, 14(3), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030115 - 13 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 554

Abstract

Background: Basketball requires frequent short-distance sprints performed under both predictable (closed-skill) and unpredictable (open-skill) conditions. Objectives: This study compared sprint performance between closed- and open-skill conditions in 37 professional male basketball players aged 16–18 years. We aimed to determine whether sprint times differ [...] Read more.

Background: Basketball requires frequent short-distance sprints performed under both predictable (closed-skill) and unpredictable (open-skill) conditions. Objectives: This study compared sprint performance between closed- and open-skill conditions in 37 professional male basketball players aged 16–18 years. We aimed to determine whether sprint times differ between conditions and distances, test for a condition-by-distance interaction, and evaluate whether player rankings remain consistent across conditions. Methods: All players completed 5 m and 10 m sprints under both closed- and open-skill formats. Performance was analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) for main effects and interactions, paired-samples t-tests for condition-specific comparisons, and correlation analyses to examine ranking consistency. Results: Sprint times were significantly slower in open-skill compared to closed-skill conditions at both distances (p < 0.001), indicating a clear performance decrement when responding to a visual stimulus. No significant condition-by-distance interaction was observed, despite a descriptively greater slowdown at shorter distances. Ranking consistency between conditions was low, indicating that faster closed-skill performers did not necessarily maintain their advantage in open-skill scenarios. Conclusions: These findings suggest that open-skill sprinting may reflect a distinct performance profile integrating physical acceleration and perceptual–cognitive processing. Including reactive sprint assessments in studies may enhance the sport-specific evaluation of explosive speed in basketball. Full article

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17 pages, 1400 KB

Open AccessArticle

Small-Sided Games vs. Running-Based High-Intensity Interval Training: An Exploratory Study of the Effects on Physical Performance and Internal Load in Under-11 Male Football Players

by Marco Panascì, Vittoria Ferrando, Carlo Castagna, Gennaro Apollaro, Piero Ruggeri and Emanuela Luisa Faelli

Sports 2026, 14(3), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030114 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1117

Abstract

Background: This study aimed, in U11 male football players, (i) to investigate the effects of an 8-week running-based HIIT or SSGs program on aerobic fitness, neuromuscular performance and internal load, and (ii) to compare training-induced changes in performance variables between training modalities. Methods: [...] Read more.

Background: This study aimed, in U11 male football players, (i) to investigate the effects of an 8-week running-based HIIT or SSGs program on aerobic fitness, neuromuscular performance and internal load, and (ii) to compare training-induced changes in performance variables between training modalities. Methods: Sixteen U11 football players were randomly assigned to either the SSGs group (4 vs. 4 format, 5 × 3 min with 1 min of rest between bouts) or the HIIT group (5 × 3 min of 15 s running at 100% peak velocity (Vpeak) alternating with 15 s of recovery, and 1 min of rest between sets). The intervention period lasted 8 weeks. Aerobic fitness (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Level 1 Children’s Test, YYIR1C), sprint time performance (10 m and 20 m sprints tests) and change-of-direction (COD) ability (Arrowhead Agility Test) were assessed before and after the intervention. Heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed as indices of internal load. Results: Both SSGs and running-based HIIT produced comparable improvements in YYIR1C distance, Vpeak (p < 0.05), with no significant change in the between-group difference. Neuromuscular gains occurred only after SSGs (p < 0.05), with similar 10 m sprint improvements between groups but superior 20 m gains for SSGs (p < 0.01). COD ability improved in both groups (p < 0.05), with broader enhancements following SSGs (p < 0.05). Finally, running-based HIIT elicited greater HRpeak and higher RPE than SSGs (p < 0.05) across most intervention weeks. Conclusions: In U11 male football players, both SSGs and running-based HIIT effectively improved aerobic fitness and COD performance. However, SSGs may offer additional benefits for sprint development with lower perceived psychological stress. Full article

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19 pages, 3652 KB

Open AccessArticle

Musculoskeletal and Ergonomic Demands of the Pumping Maneuver in Laser-Class Sailing: An Integrated Biomechanical Analysis

by Carlotta Fontana, Nicola Laiola, Alessandro Naddeo and Rosaria Califano

Sports 2026, 14(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030113 - 13 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 623

Abstract

Background: Pumping in Laser-class sailing is a dynamic propulsion technique used in marginal wind conditions and characterized by repetitive, coordinated oscillations of the sailor–sail system. Despite its practical relevance, its biomechanical and ergonomic demands remain insufficiently characterized. Methods: A mixed-methods framework was applied [...] Read more.

Background: Pumping in Laser-class sailing is a dynamic propulsion technique used in marginal wind conditions and characterized by repetitive, coordinated oscillations of the sailor–sail system. Despite its practical relevance, its biomechanical and ergonomic demands remain insufficiently characterized. Methods: A mixed-methods framework was applied combining questionnaire data, kinematic analysis, ergonomic assessment, and musculoskeletal modelling. Thirty-six competitive Laser sailors completed a Borg CR-10-based questionnaire on perceived discomfort/fatigue across body regions at predefined time points (during pumping, immediately after training, and the following day). A controlled land-based multi-angle video acquisition was used to reconstruct a standardized pumping posture and parameterize a digital human model in DELMIA^® for postural/kinematic analysis. Ergonomic risk was assessed using REBA, and muscle activity was estimated using the AnyBody^® Modeling System (simulation-derived normalized muscle activity across 129 muscles). Results: the simulation identified high neuromuscular demand in the trunk and shoulder complex, with several deep trunk stabilizers and the left latissimus dorsi reaching 100% modeled normalized muscle activity. Marked lateral asymmetry was observed, with right-sided trunk dominance and left-sided shoulder dominance. Kinematic analysis showed substantial joint excursions, with large lumbar motion amplitudes, while REBA yielded a score of 11 (Very-High Risk). Questionnaire data indicated a high prevalence of pumping-related musculoskeletal discomfort (72.2%), most frequently involving the lower back, shoulders, and knees. A dissociation was observed between modeled muscle activity and perceived fatigue, with the lower limbs rated as most fatigued despite lower modeled activation than the trunk. Conclusions: Findings identify the deep trunk stabilizers, latissimus dorsi, and lower extremities as key regions involved in pumping, with marked lateral asymmetry and high ergonomic risk. They support targeted training, injury-prevention, and ergonomic strategies to improve performance and reduce injury risk in competitive sailing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Biomechanics, Ergonomics and Physiology for Enhanced Sport Performance and Training Optimization)

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20 pages, 1056 KB

Open AccessReview

Evolution of Multifaceted Sport-Related Concussion Management: A 25-Year Narrative Review of Multidomain Assessment and Multimodal Rehabilitation

by James Stavitz, Kenneth Swan, Jr., Adam Eckart, Thomas Koc, Jenna Tucker, Jennifer T. Gentile, Pragya Sharma Ghimire and Ryan Porcelli

Sports 2026, 14(3), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030112 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1029

Abstract

Context: Sport-related concussion (SRC) management has evolved substantially over the past 25 years. Early paradigms emphasized prolonged physical and cognitive rest; however, growing evidence has demonstrated that recovery following SRC is multidimensional and influenced by interacting neurological, vestibular, autonomic, cervical, cognitive, and psychological [...] Read more.

Context: Sport-related concussion (SRC) management has evolved substantially over the past 25 years. Early paradigms emphasized prolonged physical and cognitive rest; however, growing evidence has demonstrated that recovery following SRC is multidimensional and influenced by interacting neurological, vestibular, autonomic, cervical, cognitive, and psychological systems. Consequently, contemporary clinical practice has shifted toward active, multifaceted rehabilitation approaches. Objective: We aimed to synthesize and contextualize the evidence supporting a multifaceted approach to sport-related concussion management from 2000 through 2025, with emphasis on implications for athletic training practice. Data Sources: A structured literature search was conducted using PubMed, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, and Web of Science to identify peer-reviewed publications related to SRC evaluation, management, and rehabilitation. Study Selection: Studies published between 1 January 2000, and 31 December 2025 involving human participants with sport-related concussion or sport-like mechanisms of mild traumatic brain injury were included. Evidence from randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, systematic and narrative reviews, and major consensus or position statements was considered. Data Extraction: Relevant studies were reviewed and synthesized across key domains of SRC management, including aerobic exercise, vestibular and oculomotor rehabilitation, cervical spine management, multimodal and profile-based rehabilitation, return-to-learn strategies, psychological and behavioral health considerations, and implementation patterns within athletic training settings. Results: A total of 182 publications contributed evidence to one or more components of multifaceted SRC management. Across domains, evidence supports early, symptom-limited aerobic exercise; targeted vestibular and cervical rehabilitation; structured return-to-learn planning; and the integration of psychological support. Multimodal rehabilitation and profile-based clinical categorization approaches were associated with shorter recovery timelines and improved functional outcomes compared with rest-only strategies. Despite strong evidence, implementation variability persists across athletic training settings. Conclusions: Evidence accumulated over the past 25 years supports a shift toward active, individualized, and multidisciplinary approaches to SRC management. Athletic trainers are uniquely positioned to coordinate multifaceted care addressing the diverse contributors to concussion recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Related Concussion and Head Impact in Athletes)

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16 pages, 994 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Head Impacts in Elite Muay Thai: A Case Study Using Instrumented Mouthguards

by Luke Del Vecchio, Mike Climstein and Daniel A. Brown

Sports 2026, 14(3), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030111 - 11 Mar 2026

Viewed by 854

Abstract

Instrumented mouthguards (iMGs) enable in vivo monitoring of head-impact exposure by reporting event-level peak linear acceleration (PLA) and peak angular acceleration (PAA) in contact sports. This case study describes head impacts in a world-class Muay Thai fighter during routine sparring sessions over a [...] Read more.

Instrumented mouthguards (iMGs) enable in vivo monitoring of head-impact exposure by reporting event-level peak linear acceleration (PLA) and peak angular acceleration (PAA) in contact sports. This case study describes head impacts in a world-class Muay Thai fighter during routine sparring sessions over a two-week period leading into a competitive bout. Seven sparring sessions were monitored using an iMG (PROTeQT, HitIQ), and only manufacturer (in-mouth)-flagged events above the device’s 8 g trigger threshold were analyzed. Event-level data were exported from the manufacturer portal; raw time-series signals and proprietary signal-processing parameters were not accessible, and no independent video verification was performed. Across the camp, 590 impacts were recorded. Mean PLA values were modest across sessions (7.6 to 19.5 g), with one event exceeding 106 g (max PLA 162.2 g). In contrast, PAA exhibited greater variability, with multiple device-flagged events exceeding 7900 rad/s², particularly in Sessions 4, 6, and 7, where maximum PAA values reached 19,862 to 26,850 rad/s². Overall, these data indicate that sparring was predominantly low in translational loading, while occasionally producing high recorded rotational peaks. Because outputs are device- and processing-pipeline-specific and were not independently verified, threshold-based severity banding and extreme peaks should be interpreted cautiously. This case demonstrates the potential utility of iMG monitoring to characterize session-to-session variability in sparring exposure and to inform practical sparring load management strategies aimed at reducing cumulative head-impact burden. Full article

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27 pages, 725 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Change and Tracking of Physical Fitness Among Children Aged 5–12 Years: A Systematic Review

by Priscyla Praxedes Gomes, Carla Santos, José Maia, Peter T. Katzmarzyk and Sara Pereira

Sports 2026, 14(3), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030110 - 11 Mar 2026

Viewed by 981

Abstract

Background: Understanding physical fitness (PF) trajectories during childhood is essential because they reflect developmental differences and indicate whether early fitness levels predict later outcomes. Clarifying PF tracking is important for school monitoring, early identification of at-risk children, and planning targeted interventions. Objective: To [...] Read more.

Background: Understanding physical fitness (PF) trajectories during childhood is essential because they reflect developmental differences and indicate whether early fitness levels predict later outcomes. Clarifying PF tracking is important for school monitoring, early identification of at-risk children, and planning targeted interventions. Objective: To synthesize evidence on change of PF among children aged 5–12 years and, secondarily, to descriptively analyze stability (tracking) of PF components. Methods: Searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Web of Science covering the last decade (to May 2025). Longitudinal studies assessing at least one PF component in children aged 5–12 years were included. Data extraction included study/sample characteristics, PF components, assessment tools, statistical methods, and outcomes. Methodological quality was assessed with the NIH Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort Studies. Results: From 33,995 records, 18 studies met the criteria, with sample sizes from 147 to 1148 children and follow-up from 12 to 48 months. Most studies reported improvements in aerobic, musculoskeletal, and motor fitness, while flexibility showed mixed results. Boys generally outperformed girls in aerobic, motor, and musculoskeletal fitness, whereas girls performed better in flexibility. Stability coefficients, analyzed in a set of four studies, varied across PF components, and results should be interpreted with caution. Conclusions: PF generally improves during childhood, with sex-specific patterns and low-to-moderate stability, particularly for motor fitness. Full article

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19 pages, 274 KB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Behavioural Determinants of Nutrition Practices in Ultra-Endurance Runners in Ireland

by Tansy Ryan, Ed Daly and Lisa Ryan

Sports 2026, 14(3), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030109 - 11 Mar 2026

Viewed by 908

Abstract

Ultra-endurance running presents significant physiological demands, with adequate nutritional intake being critical for optimal preparation, performance, and recovery. However, athletes of this sport often consume an insufficient diet. Semi-structured interviews were conducted virtually with ten recreational ultra-endurance runners (age mean ± standard deviation [...] Read more.

Ultra-endurance running presents significant physiological demands, with adequate nutritional intake being critical for optimal preparation, performance, and recovery. However, athletes of this sport often consume an insufficient diet. Semi-structured interviews were conducted virtually with ten recreational ultra-endurance runners (age mean ± standard deviation 46 ± 12 years; eight male, two female), all with experience competing in ultra-endurance events, to explore their ultra-endurance experience, dietary intake, nutrition knowledge, and gastrointestinal symptom management. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed in accordance with the COM-B model and the Theoretical Domains Framework. Themes were defined under each of the three COM-B model components: Capability: (1) knowledge and skills, (2) the intention–behaviour challenge; Opportunity: (1) facilitators and barriers to optimal nutrition, (2) information sourcing and learning; and Motivation: (1) drivers of nutrition behaviours, (2) risk perceptions’ influence on fuelling strategies. Participants demonstrated strong psychological capability, that is, awareness of nutrition’s importance, yet limited behavioural regulation to translate this knowledge into practice. Nutrition strategies were largely self-directed, relying on peers and social media over professional support. Fear of gastrointestinal symptoms and time pressures further shaped dietary decisions. These findings emphasise the importance of evidence-based nutrition guidance to support performance and recovery while minimising gastrointestinal symptom risk. For practitioners and self-coached athletes, recommendations should reflect the practical realities and competing demands of ultra-endurance runners’ daily lives and be feasible within real-world settings. Full article

14 pages, 1440 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing High-Intensity Functional Training Performance: Individualized Load Prescription vs. Standardized Weights

by Alejandro Oliver-López, Rafael Sabido, Tom Brandt and Annette Schmidt

Sports 2026, 14(3), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030108 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 758

Abstract

Background: This study compares the effects of relativized barbell loads (% of one-repetition maximum or 1RM) versus standardized prescribed loads on High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) performance, strength adaptations, physiological response, and perceived effort. Methods: In total, 22 experienced HIFT athletes (12 males, 10 [...] Read more.

Background: This study compares the effects of relativized barbell loads (% of one-repetition maximum or 1RM) versus standardized prescribed loads on High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) performance, strength adaptations, physiological response, and perceived effort. Methods: In total, 22 experienced HIFT athletes (12 males, 10 females) were randomly assigned to either a standardized load (SL) or relativized load (RL) group. Both groups completed an 8-week HIFT program with benchmark workouts. Performance was assessed using a local muscle endurance test, maximal strength through 1RM testing (back squat, clean, and clean and jerk), and neuromuscular performance via countermovement jump (CMJ). Cardiopulmonary response (VO²peak, VO²mean, heart rate, and blood lactate levels) and perceived effort (Borg CR-10) were also evaluated. Results: RL participants did not show a difference in the interaction between group and time in TT performance but differences were founded for strength gains in back squat (p = 0.005, 95% CI [3.1, 8.6]) and clean (p = 0.027, 95% CI [1.2, 5.7]) compared to the SL group. No significant differences were found in clean and jerk performance or CMJ height. Cardiopulmonary responses were similar between groups, indicating comparable physiological stress. RL participants reported significantly lower perceived exertion (p < 0.001, 95% CI [6.3, 9.8]), suggesting more efficient load management and recovery. Conclusions: Use of individualized loads based on 1RM enhanced HIFT performance and strength adaptations, without increasing physiological stress, enabling more efficient training with reduced fatigue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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13 pages, 368 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Activity, Metabolic Risk and the Primary Allostatic Load Mediators: An Explorative Study

by Francis Osei, Pia-Maria Wippert and Andrea Block

Sports 2026, 14(3), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030107 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1124

Abstract

Background: Chronic stress is associated with dysregulation of the body’s allostatic systems, contributing to increased allostatic load (AL) and adverse metabolic outcomes. Regular physical activity (PA) is considered a key protective factor that may attenuate AL by enhancing adaptive stress responses and supporting [...] Read more.

Background: Chronic stress is associated with dysregulation of the body’s allostatic systems, contributing to increased allostatic load (AL) and adverse metabolic outcomes. Regular physical activity (PA) is considered a key protective factor that may attenuate AL by enhancing adaptive stress responses and supporting metabolic health. This study examined the differences between PA, primary mediators of AL, and metabolic risk markers in apparently healthy adults in Germany. Methods: Forty-six adults (18–45 years) were categorized into a moderate intensity (regular PA: ≥150 min a week vs. non-regular PA: ≤150 min a week) group according to current PA recommendations. Primary AL mediators were quantified by cortisol (μg/12 h), epinephrine (μg/12 h), norepinephrine (μg/12 h), and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S: μg/mL). Group differences in primary AL mediators and metabolic risk markers were examined using the Mann–Whitney U test. Results: A significant group difference was observed for cortisol levels, with higher values in the regular PA group (p = 0.01), with a moderate negative effect size of r = −0.38. No statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) were found between groups for epinephrine, norepinephrine, DHEA-S, or metabolic risk markers, including triglycerides, blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). Conclusions: The findings suggest that regular PA may be associated with altered stress-regulatory activity, as reflected by differences in cortisol. While no statistically significant group differences were observed for metabolic risk markers, descriptive patterns indicate more favorable lipid profiles and potential variation in primary AL mediators at higher PA levels. Given the exploratory nature of the analyses and the small and unequal group sizes, these findings should be interpreted with caution and warrant confirmation in future studies with larger and more balanced samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health: 2nd Edition)

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9 pages, 646 KB

Open AccessReview

Highlighting the Role of Mental Fatigue as a Health Risk Factor: A Narrative Review

by Jesús Díaz-García, Steven R. Bray, Tomás García-Calvo, Luca Bovolon, Marika Berchicci and Christopher Ring

Sports 2026, 14(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030106 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 926

Abstract

Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state induced by sustained effortful cognitive efforts during daily life activities. Yet research efforts in exercise science have focused primarily on performance implications for athletes to the point of exclusion of vulnerable populations for which mental fatigue may [...] Read more.

Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state induced by sustained effortful cognitive efforts during daily life activities. Yet research efforts in exercise science have focused primarily on performance implications for athletes to the point of exclusion of vulnerable populations for which mental fatigue may be a health risk. This narrative review aims to clarify the role of mental fatigue on population health. Evidence suggest mental fatigue predisposes people to acute events related to temporary performance impairments (e.g., falls), and chronic diseases related to sedentarism (e.g., stroke, diabetes), as mental fatigue de-motivates people to engage in physical activity. Major risks are experienced by people with higher fatigability (i.e., people for whom mental fatigue is induced by less effortful tasks) and lower performance capacity. However, the few available information about moderators of fatigability and the lack of a normative protocol to assess mental fatigue are limiting the prevention of mental fatigue. Several strategies are used to counter mental fatigue acutely (e.g., caffeine ingestion); however, enduring countermeasures intended to alter psychobiological sequelae of mental fatigue, such as Brain Endurance and other trainings, are the only proved long-term countermeasures for mental fatigue. Yet the effectiveness of these interventions should be tested in populations with major risk for mental fatigue. We present a model identifying putative pathways through which mental fatigue may contribute to health risks to guide future investigations seeking to (a) evaluate the role of mental fatigue as a threat to health and well-being and (b) design interventions to mitigate the effects of mental fatigue in vulnerable populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Physically Active Interventions on Health and Well-Being in Older Adults)

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18 pages, 793 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developmental Differences in Gaze Behaviors and Performance During Basketball Free Throws in Youth Athletes

by Miaoyu Han, Carlos D. Gómez-Carmona, Daniele Conte and Jorge Lorenzo Calvo

Sports 2026, 14(3), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030105 - 6 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 779

Abstract

(1) Background: This study investigated developmental differences in gaze behaviors and performance during basketball free throws among youth athletes. (2) Methods: Forty-six male youth basketball players (U14, U16, U18) each performed 30 standardized free throws while wearing Tobii Pro Glasses 3 to record [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study investigated developmental differences in gaze behaviors and performance during basketball free throws among youth athletes. (2) Methods: Forty-six male youth basketball players (U14, U16, U18) each performed 30 standardized free throws while wearing Tobii Pro Glasses 3 to record gaze data (Quiet Eye duration and Total Fixation duration). Shooting accuracy and cognitive workload (NASA-TLX) were also collected. One-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression analysis were conducted to examine age-related differences and the relationships between gaze behavior and performance. (3) Results: Shooting accuracy was moderately correlated with chronological age (r = 0.386, p = 0.010) and training experience (r = 0.367, p = 0.010), and total fixation duration was positively associated with training experience (r = 0.338, p = 0.025). Regression analyses showed that training experience predicted total fixation duration, and both age and experience predicted shooting accuracy when considered separately (p < 0.05), but neither predicted cognitive workload (p > 0.05). Age and training experience were positively associated with shot success. (4) Conclusions: In the youth free-throw task, Quiet Eye duration and total fixation duration were highly correlated but did not independently predict shooting success, while shooting performance was more strongly associated with age and training experience, and perceived cognitive workload remained stable across age groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 579 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sex-Based Differences in Fatigue During Repeated Sprinting in 9- to 14-Year-Old Children Are Task- and Metric-Dependent

by Bilgin Ataş, İbrahim Can and Bouwien C. M. Smits-Engelsman

Sports 2026, 14(3), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030104 - 5 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1024

Abstract

Background: This study investigated sex-based differences in sprint performance and fatigue among 9–14-year-olds using two repeated-sprint protocols: the Muscle Power Sprint Test (MPST; 6 × 15 m) and the Children’s Repetitive Intermittent Sprint Performance test (CRISP; 6 × 30 m). Additionally, four fatigue [...] Read more.

Background: This study investigated sex-based differences in sprint performance and fatigue among 9–14-year-olds using two repeated-sprint protocols: the Muscle Power Sprint Test (MPST; 6 × 15 m) and the Children’s Repetitive Intermittent Sprint Performance test (CRISP; 6 × 30 m). Additionally, four fatigue metrics were compared: decay (first vs. last sprint), fatigue index (fastest vs. slowest sprint), sprint decrement (ideal vs. actual total time), and slope IP (regression slope across all sprints). Methods: A total of 140 children (9–14 years; 70 females, 70 males) performed the two tests in randomized order. They completed the six sprints per test with 10 s of recovery between each sprint of either 15 or 30 m. Fatigue metrics were calculated for each test based on the sprint times. Results: Running speed was higher in CRISP than in MPST, and males outperformed females in both tests. In the MPST, fatigue metrics did not differ significantly by sex. In contrast, all fatigue indices in CRISP were significantly greater in females, indicating higher fatigue despite slower sprinting compared to males. Among the fatigue metrics, slope IP correlated most strongly with decay, while associations with fatigue index and sprint decrement were weaker. Conclusions: Fatigue assessment is more sensitive over longer sprint distances. Females demonstrated significant fatigue in CRISP, indicating that fatigue is task-dependent. The slope metric, which incorporates all sprints, offers a robust fatigue measure for group comparison, while decay remains a practical alternative for field settings. Full article

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5 pages, 189 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth

by Alessandra Amato, Andrea Fusco and Cristina Cortis

Sports 2026, 14(3), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030103 - 4 Mar 2026

Viewed by 956

Abstract

Research on the best athletic performance is undergoing a paradigm shift, characterized by a progressive decline in the age of specialization in numerous sports [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth)

17 pages, 1045 KB

Open AccessArticle

A 12-Week Pilot Study Comparing High-Intensity Interval Training and Peripheral Heart Action Training on ISAK-Based Anthropometric Outcomes and Perceived Psychophysical Well-Being in Young Adults

by Felice Di Domenico, Rosario Ceruso, Gaetano Raiola, Sara Aliberti and Giovanni Esposito

Sports 2026, 14(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030102 - 4 Mar 2026

Viewed by 768

Abstract

Background: High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and Peripheral Heart Action (PHA) are widely used training modalities, but comparative longitudinal data using standardized anthropometric methods remain limited. Purpose: To compare within-group changes over 12 weeks of HIIT and PHA training on body composition and perceived [...] Read more.

Background: High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and Peripheral Heart Action (PHA) are widely used training modalities, but comparative longitudinal data using standardized anthropometric methods remain limited. Purpose: To compare within-group changes over 12 weeks of HIIT and PHA training on body composition and perceived psychophysical well-being in moderately active young adults. Methods: Twenty-four adults (12 males, 12 females; age 30.9 ± 3.5 years) were allocated to either HIIT or PHA in a non-randomized pilot study, based on training schedule availability and previous training routine, which may introduce selection bias. Training was performed three times per week for 12 weeks. Body composition was assessed using standardized ISAK anthropometry. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Results: Significant effects of Time were found for body mass, BMI, sum of skinfolds, waist circumference, and endomorphy (all p < 0.05). Significant Time × Group interactions were observed for BMI, sum of skinfolds, waist circumference, and endomorphy (p < 0.05), indicating different adaptation patterns. HIIT showed greater reductions in selected skinfolds and higher perceived performance improvement (p < 0.001), whereas PHA showed greater increases in arm circumferences and mesomorphy (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Within-group improvements were observed in anthropometric/body composition indicators over time, with distinct longitudinal adaptation patterns between HIIT and PHA. Full article

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17 pages, 1366 KB

Open AccessReview

Mapping Handgrip Strength Research in Sports Performance: A Bibliometric Review of Applications, Trends, and Future Directions

by Exal Garcia-Carrillo, Diana Salas-Gómez, Antonio Castillo-Paredes, Boryi A. Becerra-Patiño, Claudio Farías-Valenzuela, Guillermo Cortés-Roco, Miguel Alarcón-Rivera, Héctor Fuentes-Barría and Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda

Sports 2026, 14(3), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030101 - 4 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 910

Abstract

Handgrip strength (HGS) has been considered as an indicator of muscle strength and overall physical fitness, with increasing relevance in sports science for talent identification and performance monitoring. However, no bibliometric study has been conducted to map the HGS research landscape in athletic [...] Read more.

Handgrip strength (HGS) has been considered as an indicator of muscle strength and overall physical fitness, with increasing relevance in sports science for talent identification and performance monitoring. However, no bibliometric study has been conducted to map the HGS research landscape in athletic contexts. A bibliometric analysis was conducted in the Web of Science Core Collection database, retrieving 229 publications. Typical bibliometric laws (i.e., Price’s, Bradford’s, Lotka’s, and Zipf’s) were employed to analyze publication trends, core journals, influential authors, country contributions, and keyword co-occurrences. Annual publications increased exponentially, especially after 2019, reaching 37 documents in 2024. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research and Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness were the most prominent journals. The United States and Spain led in productivity and impact. Key research themes included strength, performance, body composition, and physical fitness, with HGS demonstrating significant associations with sport tasks such as throwing, racquet sports, and weightlifting. HGS constitutes an accessible and valuable tool for assessing and predicting athletic performance, especially in sports requiring upper body strength and coordination. Future research should aim to expand database inclusion and address identified gaps, such as the relationship between HGS training and sport-specific outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiological Responses and Performance Analysis)

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16 pages, 572 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Sodium Bicarbonate Supplementation on Performance and Gastrointestinal Symptoms During a High-Intensity Training Session in Elite Rugby Players: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial

by Blanca Couce, Selene Baos, Adrián Moreno-Villanueva, Anel E. Recarey-Rodríguez, Juan Mielgo-Ayuso and María Martínez-Ferrán

Sports 2026, 14(3), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030100 - 4 Mar 2026

Viewed by 4417

Abstract

Background: Sodium bicarbonate (SB) supplementation can enhance performance in short, high-intensity movements. However, its effectiveness in team sports such as rugby remains insufficiently explored. Methods: In this double-blind, parallel, controlled trial, 17 male professional rugby players ingested SB (0.3 g/kg) or a placebo [...] Read more.

Background: Sodium bicarbonate (SB) supplementation can enhance performance in short, high-intensity movements. However, its effectiveness in team sports such as rugby remains insufficiently explored. Methods: In this double-blind, parallel, controlled trial, 17 male professional rugby players ingested SB (0.3 g/kg) or a placebo 90 min before a high-intensity, rugby-specific training session monitored via GPS. The training session was conducted under real-world conditions to enhance ecological validity. Physical performance (countermovement jump, CMJ), fatigue markers (capillary lactate and ratings of perceived exertion, RPE), and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms were assessed pre- and post-exercise. Results: No significant pre–post changes were observed in CMJ performance in either group. Lactate concentrations increased from pre- to post-exercise in both groups (both p < 0.001). The SB group showed higher GI symptom severity before, during and after exercise versus placebo, with several symptoms increasing over time solely in the SB group (p < 0.05). RPE increased similarly in both groups (SB: p = 0.012; PLA: p = 0.008). Due to the small sample size, only moderate-to-large within-group effects and very large between-group differences could be detected; therefore, the study was powered to detect moderate-to-large within-group effects but underpowered for detecting between-group differences. Conclusions: Acute SB ingestion at 0.3 g/kg did not result in detectable improvements in performance or fatigue markers during rugby-specific high-intensity training and was associated with a greater incidence of GI discomfort; however, the study was underpowered to detect small between-group differences. This study was registered on 23 May 2025 on ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT07017582). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition Interventions in Multiple-Sprint Sports and Exercises)

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16 pages, 739 KB

Open AccessArticle

Psychosocial and Body Image Variations in Professional Dancers: A Prospective Longitudinal Observational Study

by Marina Creazzo Maruschi, Gabriel de Souza Zanini, Pedro Luiz Santorsula de Paula Oliveira, Deivide Telles de Lima, Evandro Antônio Correa, Carlos Eduardo Lopes Verardi, Cátia Caldeira Ferreira, Víctor Hernández-Beltrán, José M. Gamonales, Mário Cunha Espada and Dalton Muller Pessoa Filho

Sports 2026, 14(3), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030099 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1029

Abstract

Introduction: Psychosocial functioning and body image are key dimensions of mental well-being and performance. Among professional dancers, competitive environments, aesthetic demands, and physical–emotional overload contribute to increased anxiety, stress, and mood disturbances, potentially impairing performance and heightening injury risk. Objective: To investigate longitudinal [...] Read more.

Introduction: Psychosocial functioning and body image are key dimensions of mental well-being and performance. Among professional dancers, competitive environments, aesthetic demands, and physical–emotional overload contribute to increased anxiety, stress, and mood disturbances, potentially impairing performance and heightening injury risk. Objective: To investigate longitudinal variations in psychosocial and emotional indicators among professional dancers throughout a season of rehearsals and performances. Methods: Thirteen dancers (9 women and 4 men) from a professional company were assessed across eight time points using the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS), State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-State), Recovery–Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (REST-Q 76 Sport), and Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ). Data was analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests (p < 0.05). Results: Negative mood dimensions progressively increased (p < 0.01; η²p = 0.46, large), while vigor decreased (p = 0.03; η²p = 0.29, medium), indicating an inversion of the typical “iceberg” profile. Overall stress levels increased (p = 0.02; g = 0.53, power = 0.81) and perceived recovery declined (p = 0.04; g = 0.41, power = 0.78). State anxiety rose consistently (p < 0.01; η²p = 0.42), and body dissatisfaction, assessed via the BSQ, increased from “no concern” to “high concern” classifications (p = 0.03; g = 0.59, power = 0.84). Conclusions: Overall, the findings indicating a longitudinal pattern of increased psychometric strain indicators, inferred exclusively from psychometric trends, and conceptually consistent with a possible imbalance between perceived demands and perceived recovery, rather than reflecting objectively measured workload or recovery processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sports and Exercise in Disease Prevention, Health Promotion, and Injury Rehabilitation)

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17 pages, 522 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Neuromuscular Characteristics of Female Futsal Players: A Systematic Review

by Catarina Marques, Miguel Rebelo, João Serrano and Hélder Fonseca

Sports 2026, 14(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030098 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 750

Abstract

Background: This systematic review aimed to analyze and synthesize the available evidence on the neuromuscular profile of female futsal players. Methods: The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines and registered with PROSPERO (CRD420251055503). PubMed, Scopus and SPORTDiscus databases were searched until [...] Read more.

Background: This systematic review aimed to analyze and synthesize the available evidence on the neuromuscular profile of female futsal players. Methods: The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines and registered with PROSPERO (CRD420251055503). PubMed, Scopus and SPORTDiscus databases were searched until May 2025. The eligibility criteria were defined using the PECOS strategy. The methodological quality of the included studies was evaluated using the Downs and Black modified version. Results: Twenty-three studies were included, covering a total of 433 female players between the ages of 12 and 27. Muscle strength was assessed mainly using an isokinetic dynamometer, jumping ability using the countermovement jump and squat jump, sprinting using the 10 m, 20 m and 30 m tests and agility and change of direction (CoD) using the Illinois agility test. Elite players generally showed a better performance in agility and CoD tests compared to lower-level players. Conclusions: This review provides a comprehensive overview of the neuromuscular profile of female futsal players and highlights trends related to the competitive level. These findings may support evidence-based practices for performance evaluation, training and injury prevention. More studies are needed to standardize methods and understand differences between competitive levels. Full article

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14 pages, 778 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Between-Sprint Running Intensity on Repeated-Sprint Performance in Professional Soccer Players

by Gregory Bizas, Ilias Smilios, Pierros Thomakos and Gregory C. Bogdanis

Sports 2026, 14(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030097 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1536

Abstract

This study examined the effects of two different intensities of running between repeated sprints and compared them with passive recovery. Thirteen professional soccer players performed two sets of six 30 m sprints on three randomly assigned occasions. A 5 min passive rest period [...] Read more.

This study examined the effects of two different intensities of running between repeated sprints and compared them with passive recovery. Thirteen professional soccer players performed two sets of six 30 m sprints on three randomly assigned occasions. A 5 min passive rest period separated the two sets, while sprints were interspersed with either passive standing, running at 95% of the first lactate threshold (MOD) and running at maximum aerobic speed (HIGH). Performance decrements were greater in HIGH than MOD at the last sprint in both sets (set 1: 5.8 ± 4.2% vs. 2.6 ± 3.2%, p = 0.07; set 2: 9.1 ± 4.5% vs. 4.0 ± 6.1%, p = 0.016). Acceleration (0–15 m) was more affected than maximal-speed running (15–30 m) (condition × sprint interaction: p < 0.001). Mean and peak heart rate were higher in both running conditions than passive (p < 0.05), with no difference between MOD and HIGH. Blood lactate showed a significant set × condition interaction (p < 0.001), peaking at 13.6 ± 2.7 mmol·L⁻¹ in HIGH, while blood lactate responses to passive and MOD were similar and peaked after the second set of sprints (10.7 ± 2.1 and 11.5 ± 2.8 mmol·L⁻¹, respectively). Between-sprint running intensity markedly influenced fatigue development during repeated-sprint exercise. The HIGH condition elicited greater metabolic strain and performance decrements than MOD or passive conditions. Within the present protocol, passive standing was associated with smaller decrements in repeated-sprint performance despite high heart rate and blood lactate responses. Full article

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19 pages, 1348 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Menstrual Cycle Phase and Urinary Incontinence on Potential ACL Injury Risk Factors with a Focus on Hip Strength and Postural Control in Elite Female Team Sport Athletes: A Pilot Study

by Elisabeth Maria Kirschbaum, Roxane Windisch, Katrin Heyde, Richard Hunger and Kirsten Legerlotz

Sports 2026, 14(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030096 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1212

Abstract

To improve understanding of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, this study investigated the effect of menstrual cycle (MC) phase on ACL injury risk factors in elite female team sport athletes with and without urinary incontinence (UI). Additionally, associations between endogenous sex hormones, MC-related [...] Read more.

To improve understanding of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, this study investigated the effect of menstrual cycle (MC) phase on ACL injury risk factors in elite female team sport athletes with and without urinary incontinence (UI). Additionally, associations between endogenous sex hormones, MC-related symptoms, and these risk factors were investigated. Ten elite female athletes (24.2 ± 3.6 years, BMI 23.2 ± 1.3 kg/m², 10.9 ± 1.8 training hours/week) completed three testing sessions across three MC phases, determined using the three-step method. Assessments included static and dynamic postural control and hip strength. Mixed-model ANOVA and canonical correlation analyses evaluated the effects of MC phase, UI, hormones, and performance. A significant interaction between MC phase and UI was observed for single-leg sway area with eyes closed (p = 0.036), and UI was associated with a higher hip adduction:abduction ratio (p = 0.037). No further significant interaction between UI and MC phase was observed. Moreover, hormones explained 16.5% of the variance in risk factors, while subjective symptoms explained 24.5%. Lower progesterone was associated with higher symptoms, lower estradiol and progesterone with reduced strength and poorer postural control, and higher testosterone with greater strength. Although limited by its pilot design, menstrual symptoms, more than MC phases, may influence performance and injury risk, supporting the potential value of systematic symptoms monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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17 pages, 339 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence and Clinical Patterns of Piriformis Syndrome Among Actively Competing and Retired Elite Hockey Players

by Caleb Neal, Timothy Gelatt and Milan Toma

Sports 2026, 14(3), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030095 - 3 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1163

Abstract

Piriformis syndrome, a neuromuscular disorder caused by sciatic nerve compression by the piriformis muscle, remains understudied in athletic populations despite anecdotal reports of elevated prevalence in hockey players. This study investigated the prevalence of piriformis syndrome symptoms and potential risk factors in actively [...] Read more.

Piriformis syndrome, a neuromuscular disorder caused by sciatic nerve compression by the piriformis muscle, remains understudied in athletic populations despite anecdotal reports of elevated prevalence in hockey players. This study investigated the prevalence of piriformis syndrome symptoms and potential risk factors in actively competing (current) and retired (former) high-level hockey players. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 67 actively competing and retired professional, collegiate, and junior hockey players (58 males, 9 females; mean age 25.6 ± 4.0 years; mean playing experience 17.8 ± 3.7 years). Active playing status was defined as currently participating in organized competitive hockey at any level, while retired status was defined as having ceased competitive participation for at least one season. The survey instrument was based on a validated clinical assessment scoring system, consisting of 12 questions assessing piriformis syndrome-related symptoms. Participants were classified as “high score” (≥6 affirmative responses) or “low score” (<6 responses). Multiple linear regression analysis was used to evaluate associations between demographic variables (age, playing status, years played, competitive level) and total symptom scores. Overall, 25.4% (n = 17) of participants met criteria for high symptom burden, with sitting-induced buttock pain being the most prevalent specific symptom (40.3%). Mean total score was 4.8 ± 1.8 (range 2–10). Multiple regression analysis revealed no statistically significant associations between piriformis syndrome scores and any demographic variable (overall model:

R^{2}

= 0.065, p = 0.374). Retired players showed a non-significant trend toward higher scores compared to actively competing players (

β

= −1.388, 95% CI: −2.793 to 0.018, p = 0.053). No correlations were observed with age (r = −0.045, p = 0.719), years played (r = −0.054, p = 0.666), or competitive level (p = 0.666). In conclusion, this study revealed substantial piriformis syndrome symptom burden (25.4%) in high-level hockey players without significant demographic associations. Full article

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Sports, Volume 14, Issue 3 (March 2026) – 40 articles

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