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Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health

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A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (27 April 2026) | Viewed by 36321

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Dr. Samuel P. Hills

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Guest Editor

School of Social and Health Sciences, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, UK
Interests: physiology; performance; testing; strength;conditioning; training

Prof. Dr. Mark Russell

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Guest Editor

School of Social and Health Sciences, Leeds Trinity University, Horsforth, Leeds LS18 5HD, UK
Interests: performance; nutrition; physiology; sport; ergogenic
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Strength and conditioning practices aim to improve athletic performance, reduce injury risk, and promote overall health and well-being. Athletic performance may encompass a range of outcomes determined by the needs of an individual’s chosen pursuit. Strength and conditioning may also concern the broader implications for public health, such as physical activity promotion and chronic disease prevention. To enable practitioners to implement evidence-based practices that enhance athletic performance and contribute to community health, it is essential for high-quality studies to elucidate strategies that may or may not have efficacy in various scenarios. This Special Issue calls for papers that address topics relating to strength and conditioning for athletic performance or public health. The scope extends to assessing the effects of acute and longer-term interventions on a range of performance and health metrics, including those evaluated in isolated performance tasks and applied research conducted in competitive or training environments. Additionally, articles that focus on methodological factors, such as reliability, validity, or best practices in testing and monitoring, are encouraged. Original investigations, as well as narrative and systematic reviews are welcome from any relevant elite or non-elite population, including those investigating the connection between athletic training and public health outcomes.

Dr. Samuel P. Hills
Prof. Dr. Mark Russell
Guest Editors

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Keywords

sports
physical
training
physical activity
health
performance
exercise

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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16 pages, 926 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of a Hybrid Preventive Program Combining FIFA 11+ and Customized Neuromuscular Interventions on Lower-Limb Function and Performance in Recreational Mini-Football Players

by Roxana Mihaela Munteanu, Andrei Marian Feier, Bogdan Voicu, Diana Șandru, Arpad Solyom and Tudor Sorin Pop

Sports 2026, 14(7), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070259 - 23 Jun 2026

Viewed by 303

Abstract

Background: Recreational mini-football is associated with a high incidence of lower-limb injuries, largely driven by neuromuscular deficits and insufficient exposure to structured preventive training. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a hybrid injury-prevention program combining the FIFA 11+ protocol with customized neuromuscular interventions on functional performance and injury-related risk factors. Methods: Forty male recreational mini-football players were included in a retrospective analysis of data collected during the routine implementation of a 12-week hybrid preventive training program. Participants were allocated to an intervention group (n = 20) or control group (n = 20) according to routine training practices rather than randomization. The intervention was performed twice weekly. Outcome measures included lower-limb strength (Kineo system), dynamic balance (Y-Balance Test), functional hop performance (Single Hop and Side Hop tests), and agility/change-of-direction ability (Illinois and 505 tests). Results: The intervention group demonstrated significantly greater improvements in lower-limb peak force across all muscle groups (all adjusted p < 0.001), as well as in single-leg hop, side hop, and agility/change-of-direction performance (all adjusted p < 0.001) compared to controls. No significant changes were observed in dynamic balance outcomes. Conclusions: A hybrid neuromuscular training program combining FIFA 11+ with customized exercises was associated with improvements in lower-limb strength, hop performance, and agility/change-of-direction ability in recreational mini-football players. These findings suggest that integrating customized exercises into standardized training programs may enhance functional performance and positively influence modifiable factors associated with injury risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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7 pages, 495 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Maximum Sprints Elicit Higher Peak Knee Joint Power than Resistance Training Exercises

by Tobias Alt, Kenneth P. Clark, Jesper Augustsson and Jurdan Mendiguchia

Sports 2026, 14(6), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060221 - 28 May 2026

Viewed by 685

Abstract

Background: Sprinting places exceptionally large mechanical demands on the knee flexors, particularly during the late swing phase when the hamstrings are actively lengthened under load. Therefore, coaches and practitioners try to increase the hamstrings’ capacity to absorb energy by various resistance training exercises with high (supramaximal) eccentric intensity. However, it is unclear whether the load parameters are equivalent to maximum sprints. Consequently, the aim of this short study was to compare peak knee power values derived from aggregated previously published datasets of maximum sprints and strenuous hamstring exercises, rather than from a single directly controlled experimental comparison. Methods: Previously published inverse dynamic analyses of sprints, explosive Razor Curls, decelerated Nordic Hamstring Exercise and eccentric isokinetic hamstring tests were aggregated and compared. Results: The combined data showed that both absolute and relative peak knee power were 8 to 14 times higher during sprinting at 10 m/s—primarily due to 6- to 14-fold higher knee extension angular velocities. Conclusions: Peak knee power during maximum sprints was not replicated by the analyzed hamstring exercise conditions, even if they were very explosive and strenuous. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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14 pages, 1440 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing High-Intensity Functional Training Performance: Individualized Load Prescription vs. Standardized Weights

by Alejandro Oliver-López, Rafael Sabido, Tom Brandt and Annette Schmidt

Sports 2026, 14(3), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030108 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1205

Abstract

Background: This study compares the effects of relativized barbell loads (% of one-repetition maximum or 1RM) versus standardized prescribed loads on High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT) performance, strength adaptations, physiological response, and perceived effort. Methods: In total, 22 experienced HIFT athletes (12 males, 10 females) were randomly assigned to either a standardized load (SL) or relativized load (RL) group. Both groups completed an 8-week HIFT program with benchmark workouts. Performance was assessed using a local muscle endurance test, maximal strength through 1RM testing (back squat, clean, and clean and jerk), and neuromuscular performance via countermovement jump (CMJ). Cardiopulmonary response (VO²peak, VO²mean, heart rate, and blood lactate levels) and perceived effort (Borg CR-10) were also evaluated. Results: RL participants did not show a difference in the interaction between group and time in TT performance but differences were founded for strength gains in back squat (p = 0.005, 95% CI [3.1, 8.6]) and clean (p = 0.027, 95% CI [1.2, 5.7]) compared to the SL group. No significant differences were found in clean and jerk performance or CMJ height. Cardiopulmonary responses were similar between groups, indicating comparable physiological stress. RL participants reported significantly lower perceived exertion (p < 0.001, 95% CI [6.3, 9.8]), suggesting more efficient load management and recovery. Conclusions: Use of individualized loads based on 1RM enhanced HIFT performance and strength adaptations, without increasing physiological stress, enabling more efficient training with reduced fatigue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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14 pages, 899 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Reliability and Validity of Predictive Anthropometric Equations for Estimating Fat Mass, Lean Mass and the Role of Maturity Offset in Lean Mass Prediction Within Professional, Academy Soccer Players from the United Kingdom

by Elena Efstathiou, Laura J. Wilson, Brent Dickinson and Christopher Curtis

Sports 2026, 14(3), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030091 - 2 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1106

Abstract

The reliability and validity of anthropometric equations remain uncertain in young athletes experiencing biological maturation. This study assessed the reliability and validity of anthropometric equations against dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)-derived fat mass (FM) and lean mass (LM) values and examined the influence of maturity offset within academy soccer players. Twenty-five male academy soccer players (age: 18.6 ± 0.8 years, height: 182.7 cm ± 5.9 cm, BM: 79.3 kg ± 7.6 kg) completed skinfold and DXA assessments. FM and LM were estimated using commonly adopted anthropometric equations. Reliability and validity were assessed. Linear regression examined the influence of maturity offset. Acceptable agreement for the equations of Wilmore & Behnke and Oliver et al. for LM and FM was observed (FM; ICC: 0.858–0.891, CV%: 8.1–8.8 ± 4.6–6.4, LoA: 2.62–3.06 to −1.33–−1.62, ES: 0.27–0.47, Z = −2.257–−3.150; LM: ICC: 0.886–0.905, CV%: 2.9–3.3 ± 1.3, LoA: 5.17–5.62 to 0.54–0.78, ES: 0.42–0.48, both p < 0.001). Bland–Altman inspection showed mean bias and wide LoA for all equations. Maturity offset modestly predicted LM for all equations. Observed anthropometric equations have limited validity vs. DXA-derived FM and LM in academy soccer players. Maturity offset warrants consideration for maturity-sensitive, population-specific equations to avoid systematic errors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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15 pages, 947 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Repeated Forward Versus Repeated Backward Sprint Training on Physical Fitness Measures in Youth Male Basketball Players

by Ghofrane Arbi, Yassine Negra, Aaron Uthoff, Senda Sammoud, Patrick Müller, Helmi Chaabene and Younes Hachana

Sports 2026, 14(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010016 - 4 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1315

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the effects of eight weeks of repeated backward sprint training (RBST) versus repeated forward sprint training (RFST) on physical fitness measures. Twenty-three postpubertal male basketball players (mean age = 15 years) were randomly assigned to either an RBST group (n = 12) or an RFST group (n = 11). Pre- and post-intervention assessments measured 5-, 10-, and 20 m sprint performance, Y-agility, 505 change of direction (CoD) speed, countermovement jump (CMJ), standing long jump (SLJ), and RSA (RSA best time [RSA_best] and RSA mean time [RSA_mean]). The RBST group significantly improved in all measures (p < 0.05; 6.11 to 19.25%; Effect size [ES] = 0.32 to 1.05) except RSA_best. The RFST group significantly improved 10 m sprint, SLJ, RSA_best, and RSA_mean (p < 0.05; 6.25 to 17.84%; ES = 0.05 to 0.80). Between-group analysis revealed that RBST outperformed RFST in Y-agility and SLJ (p < 0.05; ES = −1.03 and 0.16, respectively). RBST was more effective for improving agility and lower-body power, while RFST provided a slight advantage in peak RSA. These findings suggest that incorporating task-specific sprint training may optimize physical performance in male youth basketball players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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12 pages, 629 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Effects of Flywheel Eccentric Overload on Vertical Jump, Change of Direction, and Isometric Mid-Thigh Pull Performance in Top-Level Team Sports Athletes

by Nikola Andrić, Tatjana Jezdimirović-Stojanović, Mladen Mikić, Bojan Međedović, Damjan Jakšić and Marko D. M. Stojanović

Sports 2026, 14(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010006 - 1 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1729

Abstract

We examined the acute effects of flywheel eccentric overload (FEO) on countermovement jumps (CMJs), changes of direction (COD), and isometric mid-thigh pulls (IMTPs) in top-level team sports athletes (three females and seven males). FEO was carried out by performing 3 × 6 reps with 0.025 kg·m² inertia and a 2 min passive rest period. Its post-activation potentiation was compared to a control warm-up. Performance was tested at 0, 3, and 6 min post-intervention. Significant improvements were reported in the COD5m times for the left (F = 8.38, p < 0.001, ES = 1.92) and right legs (F = 11.3, p < 0.001, ES = 2.24), as well as for CMJ height (F = 12.4, p < 0.001, ES = 2.35). Significant differences were observed in COD5m between baseline and 3 min (p < 0.001, ES = 0.99 and p = 0.003, ES = 1.25) and 6 min (p = 0.04, ES = 1.19 and p < 0.001, ES = 1.09) for the left and right legs, respectively. Jump height increased significantly at 3 min (p < 0.001, ES = 1.62) and remained elevated at 6 min (p < 0.001, ES = 1.02). CMJ peak power (CMJPP) decreased significantly (F = 6.4, p = 0.002, ES = 1.68), with a drop at 0 min (p = 0.024, ES = 0.85) and a return to baseline at 3 min (p = 0.002, ES = 1.35). No significant effects were found for the CMJ eccentric rate of force development (CMJRFDecc) or IMTP. It was found that FEO can acutely enhance jumping and changes of direction but not strength in elite team sports athletes. A three-minute rest appears to maximize these effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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13 pages, 434 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiovascular Responses to a Full Resistance Training Session Performed with and Without Blood Flow Restriction

by Anderson Geremias Macedo, Gabriel de Souza Zanini, Danilo Alexandre Massini, Tiago André Freire Almeida, David Michel de Oliveria, Cátia Caldeira Ferreira, Ricardo Monteiro Robalo, Mário Cunha Espada and Dalton Muller Pessôa Filho

Sports 2025, 13(12), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120430 - 3 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2130

Abstract

Resistance training (RT) can induce cardiovascular overload, especially at high intensities. Blood flow restriction (BFR) has emerged as a low-load alternative that is potentially effective and safe, although its hemodynamic and respiratory effects remain controversial. Background/Objectives: The aim of this study was to compare cardiovascular responses between a high-load RT session (RT_HL; 70% of one repetition maximum—1RM) and a low-load session combined with BFR (RT_LL+BFR; 30% 1RM). Methods: Nineteen trained men (24.3 ± 3.9 years; 177.7 ± 6.3 cm; 84.7 ± 13.0 kg) performed the RT_HL and RT_LL+BFR protocols, with eight exercises for each protocol. The following variables–heart rate (HR), percentage of maximum heart rate (%HRmax), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and rate pressure product (RPP)–were assessed during the protocols. Results: Both protocols significantly increased HR (pre: 74 ± 8 bpm; post: RT_HL = 142 ± 9 bpm; RT_LL+BFR = 133 ± 6 bpm; p < 0.01), %HRmax (RT_HL = 72 ± 5%; RT_LL+BFR = 69 ± 4%; p < 0.01), SBP (RT_HL = 144 ± 6 mmHg; RT_LL+BFR = 140 ± 6 mmHg; p < 0.05), and RPP (RT_HL = 20,469 ± 1620; RT_LL+BFR = 18,637 ± 1253; p < 0.01) compared to resting values. No variable exceeded safety thresholds for RPP (<30,000; %HRmax < 75%), and DPB showed a slight elevation in both conditions (p < 0.05), but without differences between protocols (p = 0.28). Conclusions: Exercise load intensity was an important determinant of hemodynamic responses, but BFR elicited comparable stimuli with low load, thereby emphasizing improved safety to traditional high-load-intensity training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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13 pages, 1716 KB

Open AccessArticle

Female Basketball Players’ Jump and Sprint Performance After Plyometric Jump Training Compared to Resistance Training

by Yuhang Tian, Kai Xu, Wenxuan Fang and Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo

Sports 2025, 13(11), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110374 - 1 Nov 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2369

Abstract

Background: Plyometric training (PT) and resistance training (RT) can improve jumping and sprinting performance, although their comparative effectiveness in elite female basketball players remain unknown. Objectives: To compare the effects of PT and RT on jumping and sprinting performance in elite female basketball players. Methods: Thirty elite female basketball players were randomly assigned to PT (n = 10), RT (n = 10) or control groups (n = 10, standard basketball training). Performance assessments before and after the interventions (8 weeks, 16 training sessions) included countermovement jump (CMJ) height and peak power, drop jump (DJ) height and reactive strength index (RSI), standing long jump distance (LJ), CMJ with arm swing (CMJA) height, running CMJA height, and 22.2 m linear sprint time. Performance changes were analyzed using linear and Bayesian mixed-effects models. Results: Compared to controls, RT and PT improved the RSI. Additionally, PT improved (p < 0.05; posterior probability >0: 99.4–99.9%) CMJ height, CMJ peak power, DJ height and RSI, LJ, CMJA, Running CMJA and sprint time when compared to both controls and RT. Conclusions: Compared to RT, PT induced greater jumping and sprinting performance improvements in elite female basketball players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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12 pages, 255 KB

Open AccessArticle

Injury Epidemiology in Brazilian Rugby Union: Implications for Strength and Conditioning Practice

by Joana Magalhães Marrese, Tamiris Beppler Martins, Mark Russell and Rodrigo Okubo

Sports 2025, 13(8), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080247 - 26 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1632

Abstract

Rugby Union is a high-impact sport with considerable injury risk, especially in emerging rugby settings where structured physical preparation may be limited. This study aimed to assess the epidemiological profile and injury incidence among Rugby Union players in Brazil, providing insights to inform strength and conditioning strategies. A cross-sectional observational study was conducted between October 2023 and February 2024 using a digital questionnaire that captured demographic data, sports participation history, and detailed information about injuries sustained in 2022 and 2023. A total of 236 players participated (58.9% male; mean age = 29.4 ± 7.5 years), with males averaging 29.6 ± 7.7 years and females 29.1 ± 7.5 years. Overall, 183 injuries were reported. Most injuries occurred during matches (73.3%) and were contact-related (82.1%), with the shoulder/clavicle and knee being the most affected regions. Ligament injuries (27.3%), dislocations (15.3%), and fractures (16.4%) were the most prevalent types. Female players had a distinct injury pattern, with a greater proportion of non-contact mechanisms. Significant associations were found between injury occurrence and sex (p = 0.012), playing modality (p < 0.001), injury type (p = 0.013), and recovery time (p = 0.006). These findings highlight the urgent need for tailored strength and conditioning interventions focused on injury prevention and athletic preparedness. Such programs should address sport-specific demands, promote neuromuscular resilience, and be accessible across competitive levels to improve performance and minimize injury-related setbacks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

14 pages, 985 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Asymmetric and Symmetric Sport Load on Upper and Lower Extremity Strength and Balance: A Comparison Between the Dominant and Non-Dominant Side in Adolescent Female Athletes

by Safoura Heshmati, Kourosh Ghahraman Tabrizi, Abdolhamid Daneshjoo, Elham Hosseini, Saeid Bahiraei, Mansour Sahebozamani, Andreas Konrad and David George Behm

Sports 2025, 13(3), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13030089 - 14 Mar 2025

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5570

Abstract

The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of primarily asymmetrical (soccer and volleyball) and symmetrical sport load (sprint and swimming) in the upper and lower limbs on dynamic balance and muscle strength and to compare these values in the dominant and non-dominant limbs. This study employed a cross-sectional design, included 45 adolescent female athletes from four sports, divided into asymmetric (ASYM, n = 25) and symmetric (SYM, n = 20) groups. They were assessed for maximal voluntary isometric muscle contraction (MVIC) relative muscular strength using a handheld dynamometer (HHD) for shoulder external rotation (ER) and internal rotation (IR), as well as hamstring and quadricep strength. Upper and lower limb balance were also assessed using the Upper (YBT-UQ) and Lower Quarter Y Balance Test (YBT-LQ) tests. The results showed significantly greater balance in the upper extremities of swimmers and in the lower extremities of the sprinters in both the dominant (DS) and non-dominant (NDS) sides than in other groups (p < 0.0001). However, no significant difference in internal and external shoulder rotator muscles strength between the groups (p > 0.05). Although significant differences were found in hamstring strength on the dominant side and quadricep strength on both sides (p < 0.05), a notable finding was that sprint athletes consistently demonstrated stronger quadriceps muscles as compared to other groups in both the dominant and non-dominant sides. According to the current findings, there are significant differences in upper and lower body balance, hamstring, and quadricep muscle strength among sports. This suggests that athletes of asymmetrical sports may need to improve non-dominant side knee strength and balance symmetry to prevent the risk of injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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20 pages, 1637 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Shape of Success: A Scoping Review of Somatotype in Modern Elite Athletes Across Various Sports

by Ximena Martínez-Mireles, Edna Judith Nava-González, Manuel López-Cabanillas Lomelí, Debbie Samantha Puente-Hernández, Miriam Gutiérrez-López, José Omar Lagunes-Carrasco, Ricardo López-García and Erik Ramírez

Sports 2025, 13(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020038 - 4 Feb 2025

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 15861

Abstract

This scoping review aimed to determine the somatotype of modern elite athletes across various sports. The literature search followed the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews. Four databases were consulted, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Clarivate InCites, as well as platforms such as Google Scholar, Taylor & Francis Online, Books Ovid, CAB eBooks, MyiLibrary, and Core Collection. Eligibility criteria included articles published between 1995 and 2024 involving athletes at the elite level, such as junior, senior, Olympic, first-division professionals, world-class competitors, national competitors, black belts, master athletes, non-professional athletes with at least 10 years of experience, those ranked in the national or international top 10, and high-level collegiate athletes. A total of 66 studies were included. Modern male elite athletes predominantly exhibited an endomorphic mesomorphic somatotype, whereas female athletes were classified as central. The present study was the first to synthesize data from 66 articles, encompassing athletes of varying elite levels, both males and females, while providing detailed information on age, weight, height, BMI, somatotype and its classification, and complemented by somatoplot references. Future research is recommended to include a greater diversity of sports and a more significant number of elite female athletes to enhance the representativeness of elite athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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