Sports

12 pages, 727 KB

Open AccessArticle

Risk of Menstrual Dysfunction, Low Energy Availability, Eating Disorders and Injury in the First All-Female UK Military Team Rowing 3000 Miles Across the Atlantic

by Solène Chaléat, David Baud, Helton De Sa Souza, Imogen O’Brien, Rebecca Glover, George Morris, Kelly Kaulback and Volker Scheer

Sports 2026, 14(6), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060256 - 22 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Data on menstrual health, energy availability, and injury risk in women undertaking extreme ultra-endurance expeditions remain limited. We conducted a prospective cohort study of the first all-female UK military team competing in a 3000-mile transatlantic rowing race, aiming to characterize menstrual function, low [...] Read more.

Data on menstrual health, energy availability, and injury risk in women undertaking extreme ultra-endurance expeditions remain limited. We conducted a prospective cohort study of the first all-female UK military team competing in a 3000-mile transatlantic rowing race, aiming to characterize menstrual function, low energy availability (LEA) risk, eating disorder (ED) risk, and injury profiles. Four female British Army personnel completed the 46-day race. Menstrual symptoms, injuries, and illnesses were recorded daily, while reproductive, inflammatory, biochemical, and hematological markers were assessed before and after the race. LEA and ED risk were evaluated using the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire and Brief Eating Disorder in Athletes Questionnaire, respectively. Analyses were primarily descriptive. Three athletes experienced amenorrhea during the expedition, including one with previously regular cycles. The fourth reported intermittent abnormal bleeding associated with injury and illness and screened positive for LEA risk before and after the race. Another athlete screened positive for ED risk at both time points. Most biomarkers remained stable post-race, whereas reproductive hormones showed consistent reductions in follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in all four participants, alongside increased oestradiol. These findings, based on a sample of four athletes, suggest that menstrual function may be sensitive to sustained physiological stress in extreme ultra-endurance settings, and support prospective monitoring in female ultra-endurance, military, and expeditionary populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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20 pages, 3318 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phytotherapy in Sports Performance and Recovery: A Bibliometric Mapping of Research Themes and Trends

by Amr Chaabeni, Wissem Dhahbi, Ahlem Aissa, Medina Srem-Sai, John Elvis Hagan, Amine Kalai, Vlad Adrian Geantă, Sana Salah, Bassem Charfeddine, Karim Chamari and Anis Jellad

Sports 2026, 14(6), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060255 - 22 Jun 2026

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Abstract

This bibliometric study examines the intellectual structure, evolution, and collaboration patterns of phytotherapy research within sports science to identify key themes and research gaps. Publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection from 1991 to 2024 were analyzed using a search strategy [...] Read more.

This bibliometric study examines the intellectual structure, evolution, and collaboration patterns of phytotherapy research within sports science to identify key themes and research gaps. Publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection from 1991 to 2024 were analyzed using a search strategy combining phytotherapy and sports medicine terms, yielding 3404 records, of which 368 met the inclusion criteria after systematic screening. Performance analysis assessed publication trends, citation impact, and author productivity, while science mapping techniques—including keyword co-occurrence, bibliographic coupling, and co-authorship network analysis—were conducted using Bibliometrix and VOSviewer. Thematic positioning was evaluated through Callon’s centrality-density framework. Results indicate steady growth in the field, with a CAGR of 11.83% and peak output in 2021, involving 2103 authors across 199 sources. International collaboration reached 22.55%, led by the United States, United Kingdom, and China. Dominant research themes include exercise, inflammation, oxidative stress, and phytochemicals such as curcumin and resveratrol. Thematic mapping highlights exercise performance and supplementation as central topics. Overall, the field demonstrates significant expansion, though increased international collaboration and clinical translation are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Supplements and Nutrients on Physiology and Athletic Performance)

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18 pages, 7820 KB

Open AccessArticle

Competitive Stress Elicits Distinct Psychophysiological and Immunological Responses in Sub-Elite Water Polo Players

by Nika Nikousokhan Tayyar, Sara Naim, Antonella Strangio, Daniele Murgia, Luca Nanni and Daniele Saverino

Sports 2026, 14(6), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060254 - 22 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Objectives: This study investigated the interplay between pre- and post-match physiological responses and subsequent emotional changes in male water polo players competing in the Italian Serie C league (third national level, sub-elite), focusing on differences between official championship (competitive) and non-competitive (training) [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study investigated the interplay between pre- and post-match physiological responses and subsequent emotional changes in male water polo players competing in the Italian Serie C league (third national level, sub-elite), focusing on differences between official championship (competitive) and non-competitive (training) settings. Methods: Sixteen male Italian Serie C water polo players participated. Salivary biomarkers (cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and uric acid) were measured, alongside psychological assessments of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence. Measurements were taken before and after both training and competition matches. Results: A significant anticipatory rise in salivary cortisol was observed before competition matches compared to training, highlighting the psychological stress associated with competitive events. Post-match, cortisol levels remained elevated to a greater extent after competition. Salivary IgA levels decreased significantly following both training and competition, with a more pronounced reduction after official matches, and exhibited a negative correlation with cortisol. Salivary uric acid, a marker of oxidative stress, increased post-exercise and was significantly higher after competition. Players reported higher somatic and cognitive anxiety and lower self-confidence before competition compared to training, and pre-competition cortisol levels were positively correlated with both anxiety measures and negatively correlated with self-confidence. Conclusions: These findings highlight the distinct physiological and psychological responses elicited by competitive versus non-competitive settings in water polo, emphasizing the importance of considering the emotional context when monitoring athletes’ stress and recovery. The social meaning of competitive contexts may be embodied, impacting stress and immune responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sports and Exercise in Disease Prevention, Health Promotion, and Injury Rehabilitation)

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12 pages, 256 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multidimensional Predictors of Ranking-Based Competitive Success in National-Level Junior Tennis Players: Evidence for the Dominant Role of Physical Performance

by Rita Géczi, Gergely Géczi and László Tóth

Sports 2026, 14(6), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060253 - 22 Jun 2026

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Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the relative contribution of physical performance, executive functions, and competitive anxiety to competitive success in junior tennis players. A total of 39 national-level junior athletes (20 males, 19 females) participated in the study. Physical performance [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to examine the relative contribution of physical performance, executive functions, and competitive anxiety to competitive success in junior tennis players. A total of 39 national-level junior athletes (20 males, 19 females) participated in the study. Physical performance was assessed using a standardized test battery including a 20 m sprint, standing long jump, agility test, and shuttle run. Executive functions were measured using the Adult Executive Functioning Inventory (ADEXI), while competitive anxiety was assessed with the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). Competitive success was operationalized using ranking points. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted using log-transformed ranking points as the dependent variable. Age and sex explained 71.3% of the variance in LogRanking (R² = 0.713, p < 0.001). The addition of physical performance variables provided a modest, non-significant increase in explained variance (ΔR² = 0.068, p = 0.064). Executive functions (ΔR² = 0.006, p = 0.645) and competitive anxiety (ΔR² = 0.008, p = 0.801) did not provide additional explanatory power. In the final model, age and standing long jump were significant predictors of LogRanking. These findings suggest that ranking-based competitive success in junior tennis is strongly influenced by age-related and competition-exposure factors. Physical performance showed a limited additional contribution, while executive functions and competitive anxiety did not explain further variance in this sample. Full article

16 pages, 861 KB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Moderate-Dose β-Alanine Improves Exercise Efficiency via Bicarbonate-Related Mechanisms During a Cycling Time Trial

by Juan Carlos Muñoz-Carrillo, Silvia Pérez-Piñero, Francisco Javier López-Román, Antonio J. Luque-Rubia and Vicente Ávila-Gandía

Sports 2026, 14(6), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060252 - 20 Jun 2026

Viewed by 364

Abstract

Background: Research on the acute effects of β-alanine supplementation has primarily focused on performance outcomes, with limited attention to the underlying physiological mechanisms. This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of two β-alanine doses on performance, mechanical output, and acid–base balance during [...] Read more.

Background: Research on the acute effects of β-alanine supplementation has primarily focused on performance outcomes, with limited attention to the underlying physiological mechanisms. This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of two β-alanine doses on performance, mechanical output, and acid–base balance during a 10 min cycling time trial (10’-TT), and to explore the relationship between buffering-related variables and performance. Methods: Eighty-five recreational cyclists performed a 10’-TT under indoor conditions before (control) and following the acute ingestion of β-alanine (moderate-dose β-alanine 10 g—BAM; high-dose β-alanine 20 g—BAH) or placebo (PLA), with each condition tested on separate days. Data were analyzed using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA and correlation analyses. Results: No significant differences were observed in performance variables (distance, speed, cadence, or heart rate; p ≥ 0.751). However, total external mechanical work (kJ) was significantly reduced following acute supplementation (p = 0.028). Notably, the BAM condition reduced the mechanical cost of exercise without impairing performance, and this effect was moderately associated with changes in bicarbonate levels. Conclusions: Acute β-alanine supplementation did not improve performance outcomes but may alter buffering-related physiological responses associated with reduced mechanical work during high-intensity cycling exercise. These findings highlight the relevance of buffering-related mechanisms, particularly bicarbonate dynamics, in modulating the mechanical cost (work performed relative to performance achieved) of high-intensity exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Performance Physiological Determinants in Elite Cycling and Triathlon)

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41 pages, 1162 KB

Open AccessReview

Sustainable Athletes’ Career Pathways and Mental Health Support: An Integrative Umbrella Review

by Francesca Di Rocco, Cristian Romagnoli, Simone Ciaccioni, Sabrina Demarie, Mojca Doupona, Laura Capranica, Elvira Padua and Flavia Guidotti

Sports 2026, 14(6), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060251 - 19 Jun 2026

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Abstract

The present integrative umbrella review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the evidence and practices related to mental health and career transitions in elite sport toward the implementation of service provision through digital interventions. Following PRIO guidelines, an extensive search across five [...] Read more.

The present integrative umbrella review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the evidence and practices related to mental health and career transitions in elite sport toward the implementation of service provision through digital interventions. Following PRIO guidelines, an extensive search across five databases (2015–2025) identified 52 eligible manuscripts (e.g., conceptual, review, and position studies). Data extraction focused on mental health, dual-career pathways, career transition challenges and needs, and identity-related issues among high-performance athletes. The findings revealed a strong consensus that athlete well-being is shaped by the dynamic interaction of mental health symptoms, sport-specific stressors, identity processes, and structural conditions across the athletic lifespan. Mental health vulnerabilities (e.g., anxiety, depression, disordered eating, and distress) were consistently reported, particularly during injury, deselection, and retirement. Dual-career engagement, diversified identities, and proactive career planning emerged as key protective factors, while stigma, limited literacy, and uneven access to psychological services remained persistent barriers. Five main thematic areas (Matrix 1) operationalized in ten higher-order intervention domains (e.g., Matrix 2, screening, monitoring, literacy, and others) and 14 potential online implementation strategies (Matrix 3) were identified. However, the evidence highlights fragmented implementation and a lack of scalable, cross-national tools to support athletes during and beyond their competitive careers. Therefore, a harmonized, evidence-based, multidimensional framework for the development and implementation of digital support resources has been proposed. This integrative review underscores the need for integrated, culturally sensitive, and digitally enabled support systems to promote sustainable transitions and long-term athlete well-being. Full article

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17 pages, 641 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Different Warm-Up Protocols on Sprint Performance

by Frane Žuvela, Goran Kuvačić, Paula Matijašević, Josip Maleš and Hrvoje Ajman

Sports 2026, 14(6), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060250 - 18 Jun 2026

Viewed by 329

Abstract

Background: Warm-up strategy is a key determinant of sprint performance, yet how different protocols influence performance across repeated sprint trials remains unclear, particularly regarding sex-specific responses. This study compared the acute effects of three warm-up protocols on repeated sprint performance in male and [...] Read more.

Background: Warm-up strategy is a key determinant of sprint performance, yet how different protocols influence performance across repeated sprint trials remains unclear, particularly regarding sex-specific responses. This study compared the acute effects of three warm-up protocols on repeated sprint performance in male and female athletes. Methods: Thirty-four male and 23 female athletes completed three warm-up protocols on separate occasions: a general long warm-up (GLW; 20 min), a long specific warm-up (LSW; 20 min), and a short specific warm-up (SSW; 10 min). After each protocol, participants performed three maximal 60 m sprints (T1, T2, T3), with split times recorded at 10 and 40 m. Sprint times were analysed using a three-way mixed-design ANOVA, with protocol and trial as within-subject factors and sex as the between-subject factor. Results: A significant protocol × sex interaction was observed at 40 m (F = 4.32, p = 0.016, ηp² = 0.07) and 60 m (F = 4.08, p = 0.020, ηp² = 0.07), but not at 10 m. Follow-up analyses showed no significant protocol differences in males. In females, LSW and SSW allowed faster sprint times than GLW at both 40 m and 60 m, while LSW and SSW did not differ from each other. The protocol × trial and protocol × trial × sex interactions were not significant. Conclusions: In this sample of student athletes, sprint-specific warm-ups allowed faster sprint performance than the general warm-up in females over 40 and 60 m, whereas no protocol differences were observed in males. These findings suggest that sex-specific responses to warm-up may be distance-dependent and should be interpreted in light of the heterogeneous sample and lack of menstrual-cycle control. Full article

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17 pages, 1664 KB

Open AccessArticle

Internal Load and Technical-Tactical Characteristics in Small-Sided Games: An Investigation in Adolescent Water Polo Players

by Andrea Perazzetti, Federico Carrozza, Francesca Martusciello, Milivoj Dopsaj, Daniele Ruffelli and Antonio Tessitore

Sports 2026, 14(6), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060249 - 17 Jun 2026

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Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of different small-sided game (SSG) formats on internal load, perceived enjoyment, and technical-tactical performance in elite youth water polo players. Twenty male athletes (U16, n = 10; U18, n = 10) performed in [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of different small-sided game (SSG) formats on internal load, perceived enjoyment, and technical-tactical performance in elite youth water polo players. Twenty male athletes (U16, n = 10; U18, n = 10) performed in three 4 vs. 4 SSG formats with different time of ball possessions and size of field areas. Technical-tactical variables were assessed using the Team Sport Assessment Procedure (TSAP), while internal load and enjoyment were measured through session-RPE (s-RPE) and a 7-point enjoyment Likert scale (ENJ). Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models and Spearman correlations. SSG format significantly influenced internal load, with higher RPE values (F = 6.878; p = 0.004) and s-RPE (F = 6.27; p = 0.006) observed in larger formats of the SSG. Technical-tactical indices were also affected, with significant differences found for volume of play (VP) (F = 17.041; p < 0.001) and performance score (PS) (F = 18.574; p < 0.001), showing higher values in the smallest format (SSG1). Enjoyment differed between categories (F = 13.136; p = 0.003), with higher scores in U16 players. No significant correlations were found between final RPE and TSAP indices (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that SSGs are effective tools for simultaneously developing physical and technical-tactical skills. Coaches should manipulate task constraints to balance training intensity and skill development, while also enhancing player motivation and engagement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interventions to Increase Physical Activity and Measurements to Evaluate Performance in Children and Adolescents)

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17 pages, 790 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Biomarkers of Exercise-Induced Gastrointestinal Syndrome and Exercise-Associated Gastrointestinal Symptoms

by Keagan Hillemacher, Charlie Beaconsfield, Samuel Fitzgerald, Brooke Mahoney, Stephanie Gaskell, Rhiannon M. J. Snipe and Ricardo J. S. Costa

Sports 2026, 14(6), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060248 - 17 Jun 2026

Viewed by 457

Abstract

Prolonged endurance exercise performed in hot ambient conditions is associated with an increased prevalence of performance-limiting gastrointestinal perturbations. This study aimed to examine the associations between biomarkers of exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome (EIGS) and exercise-associated gastrointestinal symptoms (Ex-GIS) under exertional heat stress (EHS). Fifty-six [...] Read more.

Prolonged endurance exercise performed in hot ambient conditions is associated with an increased prevalence of performance-limiting gastrointestinal perturbations. This study aimed to examine the associations between biomarkers of exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome (EIGS) and exercise-associated gastrointestinal symptoms (Ex-GIS) under exertional heat stress (EHS). Fifty-six non-heat acclimated endurance-trained individuals completed 2 h of steady state running at 60% maximal oxygen uptake (

\dot{V} O_{2 \max}

) with an ambient temperature of 35.1 °C and relative humidity 29.4%. Venous blood samples were collected immediately pre- and post-exercise to quantify plasma concentrations of gastrointestinal epithelial injury and systemic inflammatory biomarkers, whilst gastrointestinal symptoms were recorded at regular intervals throughout the exercise protocol. Spearman’s rank correlation identified moderately significant relationships between interleukin-6 (IL-6) with defecation-bloody stools; interleukin-10 (IL-10) with upper abdominal pain; and IL-10, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), and systemic inflammatory response (SIR) profile with flatulence. Simple linear regression demonstrated that IL-6 explained a small but significant proportion of the variance defecation-bloody stool (adjusted R² = 0.094, p = 0.024); whilst variance in flatulence was independently explained by IL-10 (adjusted R² = 0.138, p = 0.025), IL-1ra (adjusted R² = 0.122, p = 0.033), and SIR-Profile (adjusted R² = 0.112, p = 0.040). These findings suggest that Ex-GIS development is multifactorial in aetiology and pathophysiology, and that symptom reporting alone likely underestimates perturbations to the gastrointestinal tract during EHS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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17 pages, 1639 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Neuromuscular Performance in Low-Load vs. Moderate-Load Resistance Training Among Young Elite Swimmers

by David Rodríguez-Rosell, Henrique Pereira Neiva, Daniel Almeida Marinho, Juan Manuel Yáñez-García, Andrés Rojas-Jaramillo, Juan José González-Badillo and Mário Cardoso Marques

Sports 2026, 14(6), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060247 - 17 Jun 2026

Viewed by 535

Abstract

Resistance training (RT) is commonly used to enhance neuromuscular performance and sprint swimming outcomes. However, the optimal relative load for elite junior swimmers remains unclear. In particular, little is known about whether very low relative loads can elicit meaningful adaptations while minimizing neuromuscular [...] Read more.

Resistance training (RT) is commonly used to enhance neuromuscular performance and sprint swimming outcomes. However, the optimal relative load for elite junior swimmers remains unclear. In particular, little is known about whether very low relative loads can elicit meaningful adaptations while minimizing neuromuscular fatigue in athletes exposed to high concurrent training demands. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of two land-based RT programs differing only in relative load intensity (40–50% vs. 55–65% 1RM), performed with maximal intended concentric velocity, on strength, jumping ability, and 50 m freestyle swimming performance in elite junior swimmers. Eighteen elite junior swimmers (15.6 ± 0.9 years) from a national high-performance program were randomly assigned to a low-load (40–50% 1RM; n = 9) or moderate-load (55–65% 1RM; n = 9) group. Both groups completed an 8-week RT program (2 sessions·week⁻¹) with identical exercise selection, volume, execution velocity, and in-water training load. Neuromuscular performance (countermovement jump, squat, bench press, and pull-up strength) and swimming performance (50 m freestyle from the starting block and in-water start) were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Both RT protocols improved squat and bench press strength and 50 m freestyle performance, whereas significant improvements in countermovement jump, pull-up strength, and maximal pull-up repetitions were observed only in the low-load group. Significant group × time interactions were found for countermovement jump, maximal number of pull-up repetitions, and 50 m freestyle performance from the starting block, indicating more favorable changes over time in the low-load group. In conclusion, both low- and moderate-load high-velocity RT improved neuromuscular and 50 m freestyle performance outcomes in elite junior swimmers. However, the low-load RT (40–50% 1RM) appeared to provide additional benefits in specific outcomes (i.e., jumping, pull-ups, and 50 m performance from the starting block). These findings suggest that relatively low loads may be a practical alternative to moderate-load RT in high-volume swimming training environments. Full article

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13 pages, 510 KB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Detraining Alters Body Composition and Lipid Profile but Not Performance in Recreational University Swimmers

by Foteini Dantsi, Antigoni Kypraiou, Nikolaos Kouvelas, Vasiliki Manou, Dimitrios C. Milosis, Dimitrios Loupos and Anatoli Petridou

Sports 2026, 14(6), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060246 - 17 Jun 2026

Viewed by 283

Abstract

Most detraining research in swimming has focused on competitive athletes, whereas less is known about recreational university swimmers, a population commonly exposed to temporary interruptions in structured training. This study examined the effects of 4 weeks of naturally occurring detraining on anthropometric, body [...] Read more.

Most detraining research in swimming has focused on competitive athletes, whereas less is known about recreational university swimmers, a population commonly exposed to temporary interruptions in structured training. This study examined the effects of 4 weeks of naturally occurring detraining on anthropometric, body composition, biochemical, kinematic, and performance variables in recreational university swimmers. Sixteen young swimmers were assessed before and after detraining, following at least one year of participation in a structured university swimming training program. Anthropometric, body composition, biochemical, kinematic, and performance variables were assessed before and after the detraining period. After detraining, waist and hip circumferences, fat mass, and total cholesterol increased. In contrast, fasting glucose, triglycerides, post-exercise lactate, 50 m performance, and kinematic variables showed no statistically significant changes. These findings suggest that, in recreational university swimmers, anthropometric, body composition, and metabolic variables may be more sensitive to short-term detraining than sprint performance-related outcomes. However, the absence of statistically significant performance changes should be interpreted with caution. Full article

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15 pages, 1104 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Physical Activity, Muscle Mass, and Functional Outcomes in Community-Dwelling Older Adults from Chile: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Catalina Muñoz-Strale, Josivaldo De Souza-Lima, Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda, Javiera Alarcon-Aguilar, Maribel Parra-Saldias, Daniel Duclos-Bastias, Andrés Godoy-Cumillaf, Eugenio Merellano-Navarro, José Bruneau-Chávez, Claudio Farias-Valenzuela and Frano Giakoni-Ramírez

Sports 2026, 14(6), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060245 - 16 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Population aging increases the need to preserve functional independence in older adults. This cross-sectional study examined the associations between physical activity (PA), percentage muscle mass (%Muscle), and functional outcomes in 129 community-dwelling older adults (mean age 72.05 ± 8.46 years). PA was assessed [...] Read more.

Population aging increases the need to preserve functional independence in older adults. This cross-sectional study examined the associations between physical activity (PA), percentage muscle mass (%Muscle), and functional outcomes in 129 community-dwelling older adults (mean age 72.05 ± 8.46 years). PA was assessed with the IPAQ (MET-min/week), body composition via bioelectrical impedance, and outcomes included the Timed Up and Go test (TUG), handgrip strength, calcaneal bone status (QUS-derived T-score), and SF-36 Physical Component Summary (PCS). Total PA showed a small positive association with handgrip strength (r = 0.19, p = 0.031). Bootstrapped mediation analyses (5000 resamples), adjusted for age and BMI, revealed no statistically significant indirect effects through %Muscle (all 95% CIs included zero). Exploratory simulations based on observed associations suggested modest changes in handgrip strength with hypothetical increases in PA (+0.25 kg at +20% METs; +0.62 kg at +50% METs), while changes in other outcomes were minimal. These findings indicate that, in this relatively well-functioning sample, total PA volume has limited explanatory value for variability in functional and musculoskeletal outcomes. Muscle mass did not statistically account for the PA–function relationship. Given the cross-sectional design, causal inferences cannot be drawn. These findings suggest that targeted exercise programs emphasizing muscle strength and neuromuscular function may be more effective than increases in overall physical activity volume for preserving functional capacity in older adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Physically Active Interventions on Health and Well-Being in Older Adults)

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13 pages, 4277 KB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Recovery Interventions Using Cryosauna, Cold-Water Immersion, and Foam Rolling in Mixed Martial Arts Athletes: A Polish Pilot Study

by Behnam Boobani, Juris Grants, Hubert Makaruk, Dariusz Gierczuk, Tomasz Sacewicz, Marcin Starzak, Žermēna Vazne, Tatjana Glaskova-Kuzmina and Artur Litwiniuk

Sports 2026, 14(6), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060244 - 12 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Background: Mixed martial arts (MMA) involve repeated high-intensity, explosive actions that cause substantial fatigue, underscoring the importance of effective recovery strategies. Purpose: This pilot study investigated short-term performance responses to different post-exercise recovery interventions in Polish MMA athletes. Methods: Sixteen athletes (14 males [...] Read more.

Background: Mixed martial arts (MMA) involve repeated high-intensity, explosive actions that cause substantial fatigue, underscoring the importance of effective recovery strategies. Purpose: This pilot study investigated short-term performance responses to different post-exercise recovery interventions in Polish MMA athletes. Methods: Sixteen athletes (14 males and 2 females) were randomly assigned to cryosauna (CRYO), cold-water immersion (CWI), foam rolling (FR), or passive recovery (CON), with 4 participants per group. The intervention lasted two weeks, with the assigned recovery intervention applied after each training session. Performance was evaluated before and after the intervention using the countermovement jump (CMJ), isokinetic knee peak torque (flexion and extension), and reactive stress tolerance of the determination test (DT). Data were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVA. Results: CMJ performance improved over time across groups. FR significantly increased knee extension (from 228.67 ± 26.49 N.m to 250.50 ± 22.41 N.m), whereas DT scores significantly increased in the CRYO group (from 247.50 ± 12.50 AU to 291.50 ± 15.61 AU) and significantly decreased in the CON group (from 290.25 ± 24.45 AU to 255.50 ± 24.18 AU). Significant Time × Group interactions were observed for DT (p < 0.001) and knee extension torque (p = 0.008). Conclusions: FR appeared beneficial for knee extension performance, whereas CRYO was associated with improved DT performance. Findings are exploratory and need confirmation in larger, controlled studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport-Specific Testing and Training Methods in Youth: 2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 419 KB

Open AccessReview

Risk Factors Associated with Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries in Athletes During Physical Activity According to Sex: A Scoping Review

by Paula A. Rodríguez-Molina, Rafael Barrera, Laura S. Gonzalez, Juan G. Ortiz and Eduardo Tuta-Quintero

Sports 2026, 14(6), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060243 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 389

Abstract

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is one of the most common injuries among athletes and demonstrates significant sex-based differences in incidence, with a higher documented risk in females. Various anatomical, biomechanical, neuromuscular, and hormonal factors have been proposed to explain this [...] Read more.

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is one of the most common injuries among athletes and demonstrates significant sex-based differences in incidence, with a higher documented risk in females. Various anatomical, biomechanical, neuromuscular, and hormonal factors have been proposed to explain this disparity; however, the available evidence remains inconclusive due to methodological heterogeneity across studies, variability in outcome measures, and inconsistencies in the assessment of hormonal and biomechanical variables. Objective: To map and synthesize the scientific evidence regarding risk factors associated with ACL injury during sports activity, incorporating a sex-specific analytical perspective. Methods: A scoping review was conducted following the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley, the Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines, and the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). A systematic search was performed in PubMed and Scopus through September 2025. Observational and experimental studies assessing ACL injury risk factors and analyzing sex-based differences were included. Findings were synthesized using a descriptive and narrative approach. Results: Nineteen studies were included. Biomechanical and neuromuscular factors were the most frequently investigated domains among the included studies (68.4%), followed by hormonal (42%) and anatomical factors (36.8%). These percentages reflect the distribution of research focus across the literature rather than the relative strength or importance of each risk factor. In females, injury risk was primarily associated with high-risk biomechanical patterns, cyclical hormonal variations, and specific anatomical characteristics. In males, risk factors were mainly related to muscular weakness, joint laxity, and structural ligament characteristics. Conclusions: ACL injury risk in athletes appears to be influenced by multiple interacting intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The available evidence suggests that sex-related differences may exist in the contribution of biomechanical, anatomical, hormonal, and neuromuscular factors; however, these relationships are multifactorial and should be interpreted cautiously given the heterogeneity of the included studies. Full article

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14 pages, 674 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sexual Function and Libido Loss in Female Climbers—A Cross-Sectional Study

by Sabrina Vollrath, Anne-Sophie Koller, Norman Bitterlich, Ana Buadze, Alexandra S. Kohl Schwartz, Petra Stute, Anthony C. Hackney and Nathalie Werth

Sports 2026, 14(6), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060242 - 11 Jun 2026

Viewed by 398

Abstract

Aim: Increasing female participation in elite sports has highlighted the need to better understand how intensive training affects reproductive health and sexual function. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the prevalence of libido loss and sexual dysfunction in female climbers [...] Read more.

Aim: Increasing female participation in elite sports has highlighted the need to better understand how intensive training affects reproductive health and sexual function. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the prevalence of libido loss and sexual dysfunction in female climbers and to explore potential associations with low energy availability within the “relative energy deficiency in sports” framework. Methods: This is a cross-sectional multinational cohort study of female climbers as well as non-athletic controls from Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Italy, to investigate female sexual function in athletes compared to a non-athletic control group from the general population through specific questionnaires, e.g., eating disorder screening (EDE-QS), sexual function (FSFI-d), low energy availability (LEAF-Q), and estrogen deficiency symptoms (MRS-II). A nonparametric procedure was used to check whether distribution differences between the groups were detectable. Where distributional differences were statistically detectable, selected parameters were considered as covariates in an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). This has been carried out with the following covariates: LEAF- Q, MRS-II-score, age, BMI, and subjective satisfaction. Only participants without the signs of an eating disorder (normal EDE-QS scores) were included in this study. Results: A total of 173 women were included (elite: n = 31, amateur: n = 55, controls: n = 87). No significant differences in overall sexual function (FSFI-d total score) (p = 0.518) and libido (p = 0.610) were observed between groups in unadjusted analyses. However, after adjustment for relevant covariates, including MRS-II score and subjective sexual satisfaction, elite climbers demonstrated significantly lower FSFI-d scores compared to controls (p = 0.018). Notably, elite climbers reported higher subjective sexual satisfaction than controls (p = 0.002). Conclusions: While overall sexual function did not differ in unadjusted analyses, adjusted comparisons suggest that elite climbers may experience subtle differences in sexual function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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11 pages, 711 KB

Open AccessArticle

Menstrual Cycle Characteristics and Perceived Impact in Female Volleyball Players

by Zsuzsanna Kneffel, Tímea Kováts, Anna Áder and Bence Kopper

Sports 2026, 14(6), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060241 - 11 Jun 2026

Viewed by 407

Abstract

Background: Research on the influence of the menstrual cycle on female athletic performance remains limited. This study investigated menstrual cycle characteristics, menstrual disorders, and phase-specific variations in perceived performance among female volleyball players. Methods: Eighty-four recreational and competitive athletes (M = 25.62 ± [...] Read more.

Background: Research on the influence of the menstrual cycle on female athletic performance remains limited. This study investigated menstrual cycle characteristics, menstrual disorders, and phase-specific variations in perceived performance among female volleyball players. Methods: Eighty-four recreational and competitive athletes (M = 25.62 ± 6.43 years) completed a comprehensive survey between March and April 2025, including a modified Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MEDI-Q) assessing physical and psychological well-being, perceived sport performance, training quality, and motivation across the menstrual, follicular, and luteal phases. Results: Perceived sport performance differed significantly across phases, with the highest scores in the follicular phase (M = 1.70 ± 1.51), followed by the luteal (M = 0.88 ± 1.13) and menstrual (M = 0.64 ± 1.00) phases (p < 0.001). Perceived performance impairments were greatest during menstruation and lowest in the follicular phase. Motivation exhibited a similar trend, peaking in the follicular (M = 1.74 ± 1.55) and declining during menstruation. Menstrual disorders were reported by 75% of participants, and 59.5% experienced dysmenorrhea. Knowledge scores (M = 11.13/18) indicated a moderate understanding of menstrual physiology. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate significant menstrual phase-related variations in subjective performance and motivation, emphasizing the importance of menstrual cycle awareness, athlete education, and individualized, phase-based training strategies to optimize performance and support female athlete welfare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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1 pages, 109 KB

Open AccessExpression of Concern

Expression of Concern: Barbalho et al. Effects of Adding Single Joint Exercises to a Resistance Training Programme in Trained Women. Sports 2018, 6, 160

by Sports Editorial Office

Sports 2026, 14(6), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060240 - 10 Jun 2026

Viewed by 290

Abstract

With this notice, the Sports Editorial Office and Editorial Board wish to alert readers to concerns related to this article [...] Full article

35 pages, 4662 KB

Open AccessReview

Perspective: Personalized Management of Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress in Post-Exercise Recovery with a Particular Emphasis on the Potential of Micro-Immunotherapy

by Camille Jacques and Ilaria Floris

Sports 2026, 14(6), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060239 - 9 Jun 2026

Viewed by 465

Abstract

The understanding of oxidative stress is being refined leading to the use of the terms “oxidative distress” and “eustress”. This reflects the dual role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in both pathology and physiology, emphasizing the complexity of [...] Read more.

The understanding of oxidative stress is being refined leading to the use of the terms “oxidative distress” and “eustress”. This reflects the dual role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in both pathology and physiology, emphasizing the complexity of the mechanisms influencing the redox status. This review discusses how these redox mechanisms interact with key signaling pathways, specifically the mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator (PGC-1α), which are crucial for mitochondrial health and muscle recovery. During exercise, the contraction of skeletal muscles increases ROS production which, through redox signaling, triggers mitochondrial biogenesis, enhances the antioxidant defenses and stimulates glucose metabolism, contributing to cardiovascular function and health. There is a large consensus about the importance of physical exercise in maintaining the redox homeostasis. However, the redox status could be disturbed after an intense and/or long physical effort, and signs such as markers of oxidative distress were identified. In that context, antioxidant strategies are warranted to prevent oxidative damage and help recovery. Given the many factors influencing the redox status of the body, including the training status, the duration and type of exercises and effort, diet, lifestyle, genetic polymorphisms, and circulating cytokines, a personalized approach is necessary. Targeted therapeutic interventions become important for preventing oxidative damage and helping recovery. In this review, we discuss the potential benefits of micro-immunotherapy (MI), as a multi-target approach utilizing signaling molecules, including cytokines at low doses (LD, typically 3–5 centesimal Hahnemannian CH dilutions) and ultra-low doses (ULD, from 6 CH upwards). We focused specifically on the investigational MI medicine 2LMIREG, and propose its application in preventing oxidative distress and restoring redox balance. Additionally, this review explores how the redox status interplays with the immune system, presenting preclinical data on 2LMIREG as a proof-of-concept for a tailored immunoregulatory strategy to enhance both immune and oxidative adaptations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport, Metabolism and Nutrition: Promoting Human Performance and Health)

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13 pages, 768 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sex-Based Differences in the Physical Capacity Profile of Regional Fencers

by Javier Gaviria Chavarro, Óscar Hernán Jiménez Trujillo, Miguel Ángel Gómez García, Rosa Nury Zambrano Bermeo and Catalina Jiménez Cerquera

Sports 2026, 14(6), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060238 - 9 Jun 2026

Viewed by 386

Abstract

Fencing is an intermittent combat sport in which performance depends on the interaction of neuromuscular qualities, aerobic support, and weapon-specific demands. However, evidence on sex-based differences in the physical capacity profiles of regional fencers remains limited. This study compared the physical capacity profiles [...] Read more.

Fencing is an intermittent combat sport in which performance depends on the interaction of neuromuscular qualities, aerobic support, and weapon-specific demands. However, evidence on sex-based differences in the physical capacity profiles of regional fencers remains limited. This study compared the physical capacity profiles of 27 fencers from the Liga Vallecaucana de Esgrima (13 women and 14 men; 14–31 years) in an observational, cross-sectional, comparative study. Field-based assessments included push-ups, sit-ups, squats, jump squats, pull-ups, terminal speed attained in the 20-m shuttle run test, and estimated VO2max. The analysis adopted an exploratory, estimation-oriented approach based on mean differences, 95% confidence intervals, Hedges’ g, supplementary significance testing, false discovery rate adjustment, and a directed acyclic graph to clarify causal assumptions. The most robust sex-based difference was observed in pull-up performance, with men outperforming women by 5.43 repetitions (95% CI: 3.51 to 7.45; g = 1.88), and this was the only comparison retained after FDR correction. No conclusive sex-based differences were found for push-ups, sit-ups, squats, jump squats, terminal shuttle-run speed, or estimated VO2max. Mean estimated VO2max for the overall sample was 43.48 ± 9.12 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹. These findings suggest that upper-limb pulling strength may be the main distinguishing physical quality in this cohort, although its implications for individualized conditioning remain to be established. Nevertheless, the results should be interpreted as observational associations rather than causal effects because of the cross-sectional design, the small sample, the field-based measurements, the imbalance in weapon distribution, and the lack of standardized measures of training exposure. Full article

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12 pages, 562 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of a Single Session of Sprint Interval Training (SIT) on Pain Pressure Threshold (PPT) in Healthy Adults

by Francesco Pacenza, Gary Brickley, Umberto Crainich, Francesco Bettariga, Anthony Turner and Luca Maestroni

Sports 2026, 14(6), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060237 - 8 Jun 2026

Viewed by 702

Abstract

Different forms of aerobic exercise lead to Exercise-Induced Hypoalgesia (EIH). The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a single session of Sprint Interval Training (SIT) on EIH. A total of 44 recreationally active young adults participated in a [...] Read more.

Different forms of aerobic exercise lead to Exercise-Induced Hypoalgesia (EIH). The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a single session of Sprint Interval Training (SIT) on EIH. A total of 44 recreationally active young adults participated in a single SIT session on a cycle ergometer, consisting of a 2 min warm-up, 3 × 20 s “all-out” cycling bouts interspersed with 2 min of active recovery, and a 3 min cool-down. Pain Pressure Threshold (PPT) measurements were taken on the quadriceps (working muscle) and thenar eminence (resting muscle) before and after the session. Additionally, average power generated during the sprints and the Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) at the end of the session were recorded. Percentage changes from baseline to post-session were calculated for each participant and averaged. Paired-samples t-tests assessed pre–post differences in both local and distal PPT, with Cohen’s d effect sizes (ES) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) determining the magnitude of differences. Pearson correlation examined the relationship between average power, RPE, and changes in local and distal PPT. All results were statistically significant (p < 0.001). A single SIT session induced a large hypoalgesic response at both the local site (d = 1.79; 95% CI 1.31–2.27) and the distal site (d = 1.16; 95% CI 0.77–1.54). No significant correlations were found between average power, RPE, and local and distal PPT changes. In this exploratory single-arm study, PPT increased significantly at both local and distal sites following a single 10 min SIT session, consistent with an acute EIH response; however, in the absence of a control condition, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Full article

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13 pages, 830 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Interventions Related to Menstrual Health and Menstrual-Cycle-Associated Symptoms in Female Athletes: Implications for Recovery and Athletic Performance

by Nina Mendez-Dominguez, Damaris Estrella-Castillo, Edgar Villarreal-Jimenez and Russell Arcila-Novelo

Sports 2026, 14(6), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060236 - 8 Jun 2026

Viewed by 402

Abstract

Background: Menstrual-cycle-associated symptoms and menstrual health conditions are common among female athletes and may influence recovery, perceived readiness, training availability, and athletic performance. However, evidence regarding interventions aimed at managing these symptoms and their functional implications in athletes remains limited and heterogeneous. Objective: [...] Read more.

Background: Menstrual-cycle-associated symptoms and menstrual health conditions are common among female athletes and may influence recovery, perceived readiness, training availability, and athletic performance. However, evidence regarding interventions aimed at managing these symptoms and their functional implications in athletes remains limited and heterogeneous. Objective: The objective of this study is to synthesize the available evidence on pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions related to menstrual health and menstrual-cycle-associated symptoms in female athletes and to evaluate their impact on performance, recovery, functional capacity, and symptom burden. Materials and Methods: A systematic review with narrative synthesis was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Studies evaluating interventions associated with menstrual health or menstrual-cycle-related symptoms in female athletes were included when they reported outcomes related to athletic performance, recovery, functional capacity, or symptom burden. Results: Five studies published between 2023 and 2025 were included. The interventions evaluated included hormonally related strategies involving oral contraceptive timing, recovery interventions such as cryotherapy, mindfulness-based yoga, nutritional supplementation, and pharmacological pain-modulation approaches. However, findings regarding objective athletic performance outcomes were inconsistent, and the included studies showed substantial methodological heterogeneity. Conclusions: The available evidence suggests that certain interventions related to menstrual health may contribute to improvements in symptom burden, perceived recovery, or selected functional outcomes in female athletes. Nevertheless, the current evidence base remains limited, heterogeneous, and insufficient to support strong performance-related recommendations. Further high-quality studies specifically designed in female athlete populations are needed to inform evidence-based sports medicine practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Physiological Assessment for Athlete Health Monitoring)

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14 pages, 244 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formed on Ice: A Qualitative Study of Motivation, Pressure, and Identity in Early Ice Hockey Specialization

by Sofia Ryman Augustsson, Linnéa Kristedal Asp and Pauline Schmidt

Sports 2026, 14(6), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060235 - 8 Jun 2026

Viewed by 425

Abstract

While much of the current research on early specialization focuses on physical outcomes, training models, and policy implications, little is known about how athletes themselves make sense of their developmental experiences. This study aims to examine how ice hockey players perceive and experience [...] Read more.

While much of the current research on early specialization focuses on physical outcomes, training models, and policy implications, little is known about how athletes themselves make sense of their developmental experiences. This study aims to examine how ice hockey players perceive and experience early specialization within competitive youth sport contexts, with the goal of generating a nuanced, inductively grounded understanding of athlete development from the athlete perspective. A qualitative study design was used where eight current and former ice hockey players with experience of early specialization participated. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and analyzed using qualitative conventional content analysis. Three overarching themes emerged, highlighting experiences of loneliness, pressure, and elevated expectations within elite sport environments, alongside the vital importance of support networks and team community: ‘Thrown into adulthood with premature expectations’, ‘Balancing Support and Pressure in Athlete Development’, and ‘The Struggle Between Dream and Reality’. Players described feeling pressured, isolated, and prematurely professionalized, often at the expense of personal development. The findings highlight the psychological and structural challenges of early specialization in elite ice hockey. While support systems played a crucial role, they also contributed to performance anxiety and external expectations. These insights underscore the need for youth sport systems that prioritize long-term athlete well-being over short-term success. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Growth, Development, and Qualitative Research Protocols for Identifying and Developing Sports Talent for Adolescent Athletes)

17 pages, 523 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Preseason Screening Tests and Physical Assessments as Predictors of Injury in Handball Players: A Systematic Review

by Stelios Hadjisavvas, Irene-Chrysovalanto Themistocleous, Elena Papamichael, Michalis A. Efstathiou, Christina Michailidou and Manos Stefanakis

Sports 2026, 14(6), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060234 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 309

Abstract

Background: Preseason screening is widely used in handball to identify athletes at increased risk of injury, yet the prognostic value of different screening approaches remains unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the evidence on preseason screening tests and physical [...] Read more.

Background: Preseason screening is widely used in handball to identify athletes at increased risk of injury, yet the prognostic value of different screening approaches remains unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the evidence on preseason screening tests and physical assessments in relation to subsequent injury outcomes in handball players. Methods: A systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and Scopus were searched on 14 March 2026. The first 100 results from Google Scholar were also screened, and backward citation searching was performed. Eligible studies included handball players and examined preseason or baseline screening, functional, musculoskeletal, or physical performance assessments in relation to prospectively recorded injury outcomes. Two independent reviewers performed study selection, data extraction, and risk-of-bias assessment using the QUIPS tool. Due to substantial heterogeneity in screening tools, injury outcomes, and follow-up procedures, meta-analysis was not performed. Results: Eight studies were included. Most were prospective cohorts involving adolescent, youth elite, or elite adult handball players. Shoulder-specific screening variables, particularly external rotation strength, strength imbalances, total rotational motion, and selected rotational adaptations, showed more consistent associations with subsequent shoulder-related outcomes. In contrast, broader movement-screening tools, including the Functional Movement Screen, the 9+ screening battery, and the upper quarter Y-Balance Test, generally showed limited associations with overall injury outcomes. Conclusions: Shoulder-specific preseason assessments may be more closely associated with subsequent shoulder-related outcomes than broader movement-screening tools, although the available evidence remains limited, heterogeneous, and derived exclusively from observational studies. Full article

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16 pages, 2296 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interrelationships Among Physical Fitness, General Motor Coordination, and Soccer-Specific Technical Skills in Youth Soccer Players

by Vanessa Rocco, Stefano Amatori, Roberto Bensi, Elvira Padua, Bruno Ruscello, Sergiu Vlad Lazau, Piero Tamagnini, Maria Chiara Ricciotti, Stélia Xavier, Marco Bruno Luigi Rocchi, Davide Sisti and Fabrizio Perroni

Sports 2026, 14(6), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060233 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 457

Abstract

Soccer performance is characterized by high motor and cognitive complexity, resulting from the interaction between, among others, physical and technical components. However, evidence regarding the relationships among physical performance, motor coordination and soccer-specific technical remains limited. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to investigate [...] Read more.

Soccer performance is characterized by high motor and cognitive complexity, resulting from the interaction between, among others, physical and technical components. However, evidence regarding the relationships among physical performance, motor coordination and soccer-specific technical remains limited. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the associations among these domains in youth soccer players. Forty-nine male U15 participants (age: 14.3 ± 0.5 years) underwent anthropometric assessments, physical fitness testing (10 m, 30 m sprint, CMJ, YYIRT1), a general motor coordination test (Harre Circuit Test), and soccer-specific technical evaluation (F-MARC test battery). Associations among variables were assessed using Spearman correlations and exploratory principal component analysis (PCA) based on a Spearman correlation matrix with oblimin rotation. Significant associations emerged between general motor coordination, physical performance variables, and several soccer-specific technical skills. The PCA identified three partially overlapping components, cumulatively explaining about 70% of the variance, highlighting the multidimensional and interconnected nature of soccer-related performance capacities. General motor coordination demonstrated relevant loadings in both coordinative/technical and physical-performance-oriented domains. These findings suggest that youth soccer performance should not be interpreted through isolated physical or technical characteristics, but rather as the result of interactions among coordinative, neuromuscular, and technical factors. Consequently, multidimensional and individualized training approaches integrating physical, coordinative, and technical stimuli may represent relevant strategies for youth soccer development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training, Performance and Development in Young Athletes)

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17 pages, 1260 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training with Blood Flow Restriction Versus Normobaric Hypoxia on Physiological Parameters in Apparently Healthy Young Men

by Jose Jairo Narrea Vargas, Antonio Castillo-Paredes, Alexander Javier Iman Torres, Michelle Lozada-Urbano, Delsi M. Huaita Acha, Felipe Montalva-Valenzuela, Gustavo Humeres and Diego A. Bonilla

Sports 2026, 14(6), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060232 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 513

Abstract

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an efficient exercise strategy capable of eliciting acute cardiovascular and metabolic responses. Blood flow restriction (BFR) and normobaric hypoxia (NH) have been proposed as exposures to intensify physiological stress during exercise; however, comparative evidence between both strategies remains [...] Read more.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an efficient exercise strategy capable of eliciting acute cardiovascular and metabolic responses. Blood flow restriction (BFR) and normobaric hypoxia (NH) have been proposed as exposures to intensify physiological stress during exercise; however, comparative evidence between both strategies remains limited. The aim of this study was to compare acute physiological responses in HIIT protocols performed under BFR and NH in apparently healthy young men. Eight volunteers completed two HIIT sessions in this fixed-order within-subject repeated-measures study: one with BFR and one with NH (simulated altitude: 3536 m above sea level; FiO₂ ≈ 13.5%). Blood glucose, peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO₂), heart rate, and blood pressure were repeatedly measured during the exercise protocol. After Bayesian analysis, no evidence of differences in glycemic response was observed, while heart rate and diastolic blood pressure responses appeared broadly comparable between conditions. However, SpO₂ was consistently lower during NH, whereas systolic blood pressure values were higher under BFR. Although both BFR and NH induced acute physiological responses characteristic of HIIT, distinct physiological profiles were observed. NH was associated with greater systemic hypoxemic stress, whereas BFR showed higher systolic pressor responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiological Responses and Performance Analysis)

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16 pages, 295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Nutrition Knowledge, Body Composition, and Cardiopulmonary Exercise Performance in Adolescent Football Players

by Andreea Simina Dumitrescu, Alexandru Alexandru and Sorin-Ovidiu Brîndescu

Sports 2026, 14(6), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060231 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 403

Abstract

Background: Optimizing physical performance in youth football requires a comprehensive understanding of the interplay among behavioural factors, structural body composition, and functional cardiorespiratory capacity. While sports nutrition knowledge is hypothesized to influence athletic development, its concurrent relationships with regional body compartments and objective [...] Read more.

Background: Optimizing physical performance in youth football requires a comprehensive understanding of the interplay among behavioural factors, structural body composition, and functional cardiorespiratory capacity. While sports nutrition knowledge is hypothesized to influence athletic development, its concurrent relationships with regional body compartments and objective cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) metrics remain poorly characterized in adolescent athletes. Methods: A cross-sectional study approach analysed body composition via bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), maximal cardiorespiratory testing, and sports nutrition knowledge evaluation using the Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire (NSKQ). Structural associations and functional predictive capacities were analysed. Results: The cohort demonstrated an average VO₂max of 51.18 ± 16.67 mL/kg/min and a mean total nutrition knowledge score of 43.56 ± 18.06 out of 81 (53.8%). Total and domain-specific nutrition knowledge scores were not associated with body mass index (BMI), fat-free mass (FFM), or fat-free mass percentage (FFM%). Higher nutrition knowledge scores were independently associated with superior VO₂max and anaerobic threshold (AT) metrics. Exploratory geographic analyses revealed that rural-residing participants possessed significantly higher cardiorespiratory performance values and greater baseline nutrition knowledge profiles than their urban peers. Conclusions: In adolescent male football players, sports nutrition knowledge was not associated with static body composition measures but showed exploratory positive associations with selected cardiorespiratory fitness markers. These findings should be interpreted as cross-sectional and hypothesis-generating, as some potential confounding mediators were not assessed. These findings suggest that higher sports nutrition literacy may serve as a starting point for performance-supportive behaviours and metabolic conditioning, to some degree, warranting future interventional studies. Full article

11 pages, 766 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Physical Activity During Official Match Play in Female Masters Basketball Players: An Accelerometry-Based Study

by Dimitrios Balampanos, Dimitrios Pantazis, Christos Kokkotis, Alexandra Avloniti, Theodoros Stampoulis, Panagiotis Aggelakis, Efstratios Nedeltsos, Georgios Kaltsos, Maria Protopapa, Nikolaos-Orestis Retzepis, Panagiotis Foteinakis, Nikolaos Zaras, Maria Michalopoulou and Athanasios Chatzinikolaou

Sports 2026, 14(6), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060230 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 350

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Insufficient physical activity remains a major public health concern among adult women, highlighting the need to identify structured activity contexts that can contribute meaningfully to recommended weekly physical activity levels. Official masters basketball may represent one such context; however, the amount of [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Insufficient physical activity remains a major public health concern among adult women, highlighting the need to identify structured activity contexts that can contribute meaningfully to recommended weekly physical activity levels. Official masters basketball may represent one such context; however, the amount of physical activity accumulated during female masters basketball match play remains insufficiently quantified. This study quantified the physical activity profile of official tournament match play among female masters basketball athletes and described the associated external physical demands. Methods: This observational study included 52 female master basketball athletes aged 37–63 years who competed in a three-day national masters tournament. Match demands were monitored using tri-axial microsensors. Physical activity was classified from processed raw tri-axial acceleration data into intensity zones, and differences in time spent across zones were examined using one-way repeated-measures ANOVA. External load during active play was quantified using total distance, distance across speed zones, accumulated acceleration load (AAL), mechanical load (ML), jump load (JL), and Physio Load. Results: Significant differences were observed across physical-activity intensity zones, with more time accumulated in light physical activity (LPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA) than in moderate physical activity (MPA), whereas MPA accounted for the least time overall [F (1.98, 101.16) = 47.57, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.48]. Descriptively, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) amounted to 42.78 min, calculated as the sum of MPA (9.41 ± 3.82 min) and VPA (33.37 ± 14.49 min). During active play, athletes covered 59.19 ± 17.26 m·min⁻¹, with most distance accumulated in the low- and medium-speed zones and limited very-high-speed running; AAL, ML, and JL averaged 8.32 ± 2.31 AU·min⁻¹, 22.35 ± 5.53 AU·min⁻¹, and 31.26 ± 28.35 J·min⁻¹, respectively. Conclusions: Official female masters basketball appears to provide a meaningful intermittent physical-activity stimulus within a single monitored match exposure and may contribute substantially to weekly aerobic physical-activity accumulation in adult women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health: 2nd Edition)

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40 pages, 5705 KB

Open AccessReview

Charting the Scientific Landscape of Indirect Estimation Models in Doping Prevalence Research: A Bibliometric Analysis with Narrative Appraisal

by Andrea Petróczi, Dominic Sagoe, Anna Kiss, Sándor Soós, Razieh Chegeni, Annalena Veltmaat, Maarten Cruyff, Peter van der Heijden and Olivier de Hon

Sports 2026, 14(6), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060229 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 1410

Abstract

Interpreting doping prevalence estimates generated through indirect estimation models (IEMs) remains challenging for sport policy and governance due to the wide variation in reported rates and methodological complexity. In this study, we combined a critical appraisal of the methodological and epistemic developments of [...] Read more.

Interpreting doping prevalence estimates generated through indirect estimation models (IEMs) remains challenging for sport policy and governance due to the wide variation in reported rates and methodological complexity. In this study, we combined a critical appraisal of the methodological and epistemic developments of IEM applications to doping prevalence with a bibliometric analysis of publication trends, citation patterns, and collaboration networks, using a convergent parallel mixed-methods design. Across 52 records published between 2002 and 2026, this study maps the scientific landscape of IEM-based doping prevalence research. Findings show that IEM-based prevalence research is methodologically sophisticated yet institutionally dispersed and largely Eurocentric, reflecting a field still consolidating its standards and disciplinary identity. Over time, the focus has shifted from reporting prevalence rates to methodological critique and re-analysis of existing datasets. Reported prevalence estimates, ranging from 0 to 57.1%, are highly sensitive to modelling assumptions about athlete behaviour in complex survey environments. While this trend strengthens rigour, it also complicates evidence synthesis for policy actors and risks undermining trust in IEM-based estimates if poorly communicated. Anti-doping organisations and researchers should treat IEM-derived prevalence as bounded indicators rather than definitive rates and integrate prevalence evidence with contextual data for transparent policy and public communication. Full article

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11 pages, 493 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Body Composition and Anthropometric Profiles on Competitive Performance in U14 Male Basketball Players

by João Rocha, João Serrano, Almudena Martinez-Sanchez, Amália Campos-Redondo and Sergio José Ibáñez

Sports 2026, 14(6), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060228 - 2 Jun 2026

Viewed by 597

Abstract

Body composition and anthropometric characteristics are considered relevant factors in youth basketball performance, yet evidence in early adolescence remains limited. This study aimed to analyze the influence of these characteristics on competitive performance in U14 male basketball players from Portuguese regional selection teams. [...] Read more.

Body composition and anthropometric characteristics are considered relevant factors in youth basketball performance, yet evidence in early adolescence remains limited. This study aimed to analyze the influence of these characteristics on competitive performance in U14 male basketball players from Portuguese regional selection teams. Ninety-six athletes were assessed during a national youth tournament using a cross-sectional, descriptive, and correlational design. Body composition variables (weight, height, BMI, muscle mass, fat mass, fat-free mass, bone mass, and total body water) were measured using a Tanita MC-780MA bioelectrical impedance analyzer. Competitive performance was evaluated through the Performance Index Rating (PIR), normalized per minute of play. Spearman’s correlations showed moderate positive associations between PIR and height (ρ = 0.296), muscle mass (ρ = 0.280), fat-free mass (ρ = 0.280), bone mass (ρ = 0.274), and total body water (ρ = 0.262). Although multivariable regression analyses did not identify significant individual predictors due to severe multicollinearity, principal component analysis revealed an “overall body size” factor, mainly reflecting lean and bone mass, that significantly predicted PIR (β = 0.046, p < 0.001). Physically more developed players tended to demonstrate higher competitive effectiveness. Monitoring body composition may support youth development programs when combined with functional and technical assessments to inform individualized training and talent identification strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training, Performance and Development in Young Athletes)

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16 pages, 274 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Inter-Limb Asymmetry in Relation to Peak Height Velocity and Injury-Related Variables in Adolescent Male Soccer Players

by Alberto Roso-Moliner, Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella, Demetrio Lozano, Borja Sancho-Monllor, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero and José Luis Arjol-Serrano

Sports 2026, 14(6), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060227 - 2 Jun 2026

Viewed by 375

Abstract

Adolescent footballers exhibit smaller change of direction (COD) deficits than adults, suggesting distinct biomechanical profiles; however, the role of physical performance variables in COD, considering maturation and injury-related factors, remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the relationships between sprint, jump, and [...] Read more.

Adolescent footballers exhibit smaller change of direction (COD) deficits than adults, suggesting distinct biomechanical profiles; however, the role of physical performance variables in COD, considering maturation and injury-related factors, remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the relationships between sprint, jump, and COD performance, maturation status, and injury-related variables in young male footballers. Fifty-six national-level players (age: 16.67 ± 0.86 years) performed unilateral vertical and horizontal jump tests, 20 m linear sprint tests, and 180° COD assessments. Maturation status was estimated using peak height velocity (PHV), and injury incidence and severity were recorded over one competitive season. Associations were observed between PHV and sprint performance during the initial acceleration phase (0–10 m; p < 0.01). Unilateral jump measures were associated with sprint and COD performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetries showed limited associations with performance outcomes. Horizontal jump performance was also associated with the percentage-based COD deficit (%CODD). With respect to injury-related variables, injury incidence was associated with countermovement jump (CMJ) measures, with greater CMJ asymmetry being associated with higher injury incidence, while both unilateral CMJ variables were retained in the regression model. Overall, these findings suggest that biological maturation and unilateral neuromuscular performance may be relevant factors associated with youth football performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetry appears to play a more limited role; CMJ-related measures may warrant further consideration in relation to injury incidence in adolescent footballers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Research to Optimize Performance and Reduce Injury Risk in Team Sports)

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Sports, Volume 14, Issue 6 (June 2026) – 42 articles

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