First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Adult Counts and Nectar Sources
2.2. Counts of Eggs and Larvae
2.3. Infection of Monarch Adults by the Protozoan Parasite Ophryocystis Elektroscirrha (OE)
2.4. Dispersal and Movement of Adult Monarchs
3. Results
3.1. Adult Counts and Nectar Sources
3.2. Counts of Eggs and Larvae
3.3. Infection of Monarch Adults by the Protozoan Parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE)
3.4. Dispersal and Movement of Adult Monarchs
4. Discussion
4.1. Successful Winter Breeding
4.2. Spring Dispersal or Migration
4.3. Infection by O. elektroscirrha (OE)
4.4. Role of Non-Native Milkweeds in Winter Breeding
4.5. Extent of Winter-Breeding in California
4.6. Winter Breeding in the Bay Area May Contribute to the Western Population
4.7. Winter Breeding and Climate Warming
4.8. Dependence of Winter Breeding on Non-Native Milkweed
4.9. Monarchs Adapting to a Changing Environment
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Plant Species | Blooming at Googleplex 2021 | Blooming Period: Santa Clara County | Native or Ornamental |
---|---|---|---|
Limonium perezii (Stapf) | 31 Jan–31 May | Year-round | Ornamental |
Verbena lilicina Greene | 31 Jan–31 May | Year-round | Ornamental |
Lantana camara L. | 31 Jan–31 May | Year-round | Ornamental |
Gaillardia aristata Pursh | 31 Jan–31 May | Year-round | Native |
Achillea millefolium L. | 31 Jan–31 May | Year-round | Native |
Erigeron glaucus Ker Gawl | 31 Jan–31 May | Year-round | Native |
Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv. | 31 Jan–31 May | Year-round | Ornamental |
Arctostaphylos sp. | 31 Jan–27 Mar | Winter | Native |
Ribes malvaceum Sm. | 31 Jan–11 April | Winter | Native |
Lupinus spp. | 31 Jan–18 April | Spring | Ornamental |
Rhus ovatra S. Watson | 31 Jan–31 Mar | Winter–spring | Native |
Solidago californica Nutt. | 31 Jan–2 April | Summer–fall | Native |
Symphotrichum chilense (Nees) G.L Nesom | 31 Jan–21 Feb | Summer–fall | Native |
Frangula californica(Eschsch) A. Gray | 21 Feb–21 Mar 16–31 May | Spring–summer | Native |
Ceanothus spp. | 21 Feb–24 April | Spring | Native |
Salvia sonomensis Greene | 6 March–7 May | Spring–summer | Native |
Echium candicans L.f. | 27 March–30 April | Spring–summer | Ornamental |
Lupinus albifrons Benth | 27 March–24 April | Spring–Summer | Native |
Nepeta faasenii Bergmans ex Stearn | 11 Apr–31 May | Spring–summer | Ornamental |
Asclepias fascicularis Dcne | 16–31 May | Spring–fall | Ornamental |
Monardella villosa Benth | 31 May | Spring–summer | Native |
Months | Jan–Feb | March | April | May–June |
---|---|---|---|---|
% infected (>100 spores) | 73.0 | 69.3 | 70.1 | 77.5 |
Mean (±SE) OE Rating | 3.05 (0.097) | 2.90 (0.098) | 2.92 (0.111) | 3.13 (0.110) |
No. examined | 137 | 137 | 107 | 111 |
Months | Jan–Feb | March | April | May–June |
---|---|---|---|---|
No. Tagged | 130 | 134 | 108 | 127 |
No. Recovered | 25 | 15 | 14 | 30 |
% Recovered | 19.2 | 11.9 | 13.0 | 23.6 |
Mean (±SE) period (days) from release to recovery | 27.8 (4.4) | 19.3 (3.3) | 21.1 (4.3) | 20.6 (2.9) |
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James, D.G.; Schaefer, M.C.; Krimmer Easton, K.; Carl, A. First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California. Insects 2021, 12, 946. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100946
James DG, Schaefer MC, Krimmer Easton K, Carl A. First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California. Insects. 2021; 12(10):946. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100946
Chicago/Turabian StyleJames, David G., Maria C. Schaefer, Karen Krimmer Easton, and Annie Carl. 2021. "First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California" Insects 12, no. 10: 946. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100946