Eco-Concrete in High Temperatures
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Temperature | Phase Changes |
---|---|
30–120 °C | Release of evaporable water, increase in vapor pressure. |
>300 °C | Expulsion of chemically bound water. |
>500 °C | Water capillary and gel pores water discharge. Pore volume rapid increase and changes in the pores system from isolated closed to interconnected network. |
2. Fire Resistance of OPC Concretes with Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)
2.1. Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBFS) Concrete
Temperature | Phase Changes |
---|---|
>200 °C | Evaporation of free, mass loss, better mechanical properties by temperature-induced gel formation. |
>300 °C | Strength increase, formation of gel, decreasing porosity [55]. |
>500 °C | Strength loss due to gel crystallization, loss of strength performance. |
>800 °C | The continued dehydration of calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) and the partial decomposition of carbonate. |
>1200 °C | Decomposition of C-S-H, formation of ß-C2S and C3S, akermanite, merwinite, and gehlenite in the sodium sulfate-activated GGBFSs [56]. |
2.2. Fly Ash (FA) Concrete
2.3. Calcium Sulfoaluminate Concrete (CSA)
3. Fire Resistance of Concretes Based on Alkali-Activated Binder Systems
4. Test Setups
4.1. Small-Scale Tests
4.2. Large-Scale Tests
5. Effects of Selected Factors
5.1. Effects of Aggegrates
5.2. Effects of Fibers
5.3. Effects of Cooling Regime
5.4. Heat Transfer Characteristic and Thermal Conductivity
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
8. Future Research
- Nanoscale research to fully understand the mechanism of influence of elevated temperatures on an eco-concrete element;
- An investigation about heating and the cooling rate and its influence on ecological and sustainable concrete performance. In addition, the postfire behavior of eco-concrete must be studied more profoundly;
- A proper approach and methodology to formulate a user-friendly concrete mix design with a minimized presence of hazardous materials and alkali solutions which can withstand high temperatures;
- Evidence that admixtures do not change the concrete properties under elevated temperatures;
- The bonding properties of different materials, such as reinforcement, in ecological concrete;
- A standardized method and methodology to carry out small-scale testing of specimens;
- Large-scale fire tests on ecological concrete. It remains unknown how the extremal factors such as the shape of the structure, wind, snow, applied loads, additional elements located in concrete structures, and fire-extinguishing systems (passive and active) could disturb the properties and overall performance of concrete elements;
- A developed and classified database of sustainable concrete components and possible configurations;
- A database, building codes, fire regulations, design and material approach, and user standards in a variety of scenarios, situations, and timelines;
- A life-cycle assessment analysis and a determination of the potential reusage of recycled concrete to minimalize the volume of waste;
- Digitalization, collaborations, and open access combined with artificial intelligences.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Temperature | Phase Changes |
---|---|
>200 °C | Part of the ettringite undergoes dehydration, as does the calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H). |
>300 °C | The dehydration of ettringite and subsequent dehydration of calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H) occur. |
>500 °C | The subsequent dehydration of calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H) and the conversion of portlandite Ca(OH)2 to dihydrate form. |
>800 °C | The continued dehydration of calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H) and the partial decomposition of carbonate. |
>1200 °C | The temperature at which aggregates melt. |
Temperature | Phase Changes |
---|---|
>200 °C | Free water evaporation, mass loss, enhanced mechanical properties by temperature-induced gel formation, fewer unreacted particles, increased density due to filled-up pores by newly formed gel. |
200–400 °C | High contraction which leads to removal of chemically bound water, continuation of gel formation and increasing the density, peak strength value [55]. |
400–600 °C | Slow shrinkage caused by dihydroxylation (formation of hematite, mullite) [17], strength loss due to crystallization of gel. |
600–800 °C | Further shrinkage, oxidation of present iron oxides, decrease in porosity, formation of micropores and microcracks [29]. |
800–1000 °C | Final part of particles coalescence, deterioration of matrix, critical damage of element. |
Temperature | Phase Changes |
---|---|
<90 °C | Ettringite dehydration and decomposition to monosulfite and calcium sulfate. |
>150 °C | Partially monosulfite dehydration. |
200–230 °C | Alumina trihydrate dihydroxylation. |
>450 °C | Dehydration of monosulfite. |
Temperature [°C] | OPC [MPa] | Eco-Concrete [MPa] |
---|---|---|
Ambient | 35 | 65 |
200 | 32 | 55 |
400 | 30 | 52 |
600 | 17 | 58 |
800 | 9 | 54 |
Category | Parameters |
---|---|
Composition | Binder type and amount [56], gradation, shape, and amount of coarse aggregate [102], water to binder ratio [18,192,193], amount and type of additives [97]. |
Fresh concrete properties | Concrete density [18,192,193], curing regime [194]. |
Elevated temperature exposure | Scale of tests (small or large scale) [131,141,143], heating rate [38,175], cooling rate and type [175], fire flame vs. temperature rise [147], geometry and size of element [21], spalling and cracks [22,35,81], surrounding conditions [46,126], applied loads [21,36,53,171], additional events [141,143] |
Type of Binder | Time [min] | Compressive Strength | Other Events | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
400 °C | 800 °C | 400 °C | 800 °C | [195] | ||
OPC + GGBFS (fine aggregate) (100%) | 60 | Ref: 51.60 MPa | Ref.: 9.4 MPa | Discoloration | Discoloration, cracks | |
58.6 MPa | 18.1 MPa | Discoloration | Discoloration, cracks | |||
OPC 42.5 + FA (70 wt%) | 120 | Ref.: 98.93% | Ref.: 45.47% | Mass loss, | Decomposition of matrix, microcracks | [196] |
289.86 | 91.63% | Mass loss, increased density, better mech. performance | Decomposition of matrix | |||
FA + GGBFS (60 wt%) | 60 | Ref.: N/A | Ref.: ≈51.00 MPa | N/A | Higher shrinkage, porosity, lower density | [118] |
N/A | ≈66.00 MPa | N/A | Lower shrinkage, porosity, higher density | |||
OPC (70 wt%) + GGBFS (30 wt%) | 60 | 70/30 32.70 MPa | 70/30 28.4 MPa | Lower mass loss, micro cracks | Cracks, higher mass loss, loose structure | [197] |
30/70 7.2 MPa | 30/70 6.00 MPa | Higher mass loss | Cracks, lower mass loss, loose structure | |||
OPC 50 (wt%) + GGBFS (50 wt%) | ≈200 | Ref.: ≈80% | Ref.: ≈35% | Rehydration of CaO into CaOH2 | Rehydration of CaO into CaOH2, expansion of matrix | [46] |
≈75% | ≈27% | Rehydration of CaO into CaOH2 | Rehydration of CaO into CaOH2, expansion of matrix | |||
OPC + FA (50 wt%) | 420 | Ref.: ≈22 MPa | Ref.: ≈4 MPa | No cracks | Cracks on edge of specimen, higher mass loss | [198] |
≈33 MPa | ≈10 MPa | No cracks | Cracks on edge of specimen, lower mass loss | |||
FA+ RH | N/A | Ref.: (heating curve, after 30 min) 10.5 MPa | Ref.: (heating curve, after 60 min) 4.9 MPa | Color alteration, spalling after 90 min | [194] | |
(heating curve, after 30 min) 10.3 MPa | (heating curve, after 60 min) 4.2 MPa | Color alteration, spalling after 90 min | ||||
OPC+ FA (50 wt%) | 420 | Mix II ≈33 MPa | Mix II ≈8 MPa | Color alteration | Cracks, mass loss | [199] |
Mix IV ≈55 MPa | Mix IV ≈15 MPa | Color alteration | Cracks, mass loss | |||
FA + granite waste aggregate (50 wt%) | N/A | (heating curve after 30 min) Ref. SSD: 13.4 MPa | (heating curve, after 60 min) Ref. SSD: 4.1 MPa | Red tones, cracking, or spalling after 90 min, increased thermal conductivity | [107] | |
13.6 MPa | 4.3 MPa | Red tones, cracking, or spalling after 90 min, increased thermal conductivity | ||||
FA + GGBFS (50%) | 120 | Ref.: ≈140% | Ref.: ≈70% | No cracks | Orange tones, higher recovery performance | [200] |
≈81% | ≈28% | Red tones, higher mass loss, micro cracks | Pink tones, higher mass loss, cracks, intensive shrinkage | |||
FA+ GGBFS (100%, 50/50%, 100 wt%) A: Na 8% (1.5) | 60 | N/A | 100% FA ≈3 MPa | N/A | Orange tones, higher, cracks | [30] |
N/A | 50/50% FA ≈5 MPa | N/A | Dark red tones, no cracks | |||
N/A | 100% S ≈2 MPa | N/A | Orange red tones, cracks |
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Sundin, M.; Hedlund, H.; Cwirzen, A. Eco-Concrete in High Temperatures. Materials 2023, 16, 4212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124212
Sundin M, Hedlund H, Cwirzen A. Eco-Concrete in High Temperatures. Materials. 2023; 16(12):4212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124212
Chicago/Turabian StyleSundin, Marcin, Hans Hedlund, and Andrzej Cwirzen. 2023. "Eco-Concrete in High Temperatures" Materials 16, no. 12: 4212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124212