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Sensors, Volume 19, Issue 23 (December-1 2019) – 278 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Nanoparticles are emerging materials with outstanding potential for their use as labels in electrochemical immunosensing. Gold, silver, palladium, and platinum are the main components of such particles, thanks to their direct electroactivity (redox properties) and/or their electrocatalytic activity towards secondary reactions. While the direct detection is faster and simpler, electrocatalytic strategies are generally more sensitive. The recent use of nanoparticles in combination with nanochannels for immunosensing approaches also deserves to be highlighted, being especially advantageous for real sample analysis thanks to the filtering abilities of the nanoporous-based platforms. Protein biomarkers of a variety of diseases, including tumor cells, are the target analytes on which such electrochemical immunosensors have been mostly applied.View this paper.
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33 pages, 6880 KiB  
Article
Stable Tensor Principal Component Pursuit: Error Bounds and Efficient Algorithms
by Wei Fang, Dongxu Wei and Ran Zhang
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5335; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235335 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3832
Abstract
The rapid development of sensor technology gives rise to the emergence of huge amounts of tensor (i.e., multi-dimensional array) data. For various reasons such as sensor failures and communication loss, the tensor data may be corrupted by not only small noises but also [...] Read more.
The rapid development of sensor technology gives rise to the emergence of huge amounts of tensor (i.e., multi-dimensional array) data. For various reasons such as sensor failures and communication loss, the tensor data may be corrupted by not only small noises but also gross corruptions. This paper studies the Stable Tensor Principal Component Pursuit (STPCP) which aims to recover a tensor from its corrupted observations. Specifically, we propose a STPCP model based on the recently proposed tubal nuclear norm (TNN) which has shown superior performance in comparison with other tensor nuclear norms. Theoretically, we rigorously prove that under tensor incoherence conditions, the underlying tensor and the sparse corruption tensor can be stably recovered. Algorithmically, we first develop an ADMM algorithm and then accelerate it by designing a new algorithm based on orthogonal tensor factorization. The superiority and efficiency of the proposed algorithms is demonstrated through experiments on both synthetic and real data sets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Signal and Information Processing III)
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15 pages, 2695 KiB  
Article
Method for Classifying Behavior of Livestock on Fenced Temperate Rangeland in Northern China
by Xiaowei Gou, Atsushi Tsunekawa, Fei Peng, Xueyong Zhao, Yulin Li and Jie Lian
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5334; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235334 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3161
Abstract
Different livestock behaviors have distinct effects on grassland degradation. However, because direct observation of livestock behavior is time- and labor-intensive, an automated methodology to classify livestock behavior according to animal position and posture is necessary. We applied the Random Forest algorithm to predict [...] Read more.
Different livestock behaviors have distinct effects on grassland degradation. However, because direct observation of livestock behavior is time- and labor-intensive, an automated methodology to classify livestock behavior according to animal position and posture is necessary. We applied the Random Forest algorithm to predict livestock behaviors in the Horqin Sand Land by using Global Positioning System (GPS) and tri-axis accelerometer data and then confirmed the results through field observations. The overall accuracy of GPS models was 85% to 90% when the time interval was greater than 300–800 s, which was approximated to the tri-axis model (96%) and GPS-tri models (96%). In the GPS model, the linear backward or forward distance were the most important determinants of behavior classification, and nongrazing was less than 30% when livestock travelled more than 30–50 m over a 5-min interval. For the tri-axis accelerometer model, the anteroposterior acceleration (–3 m/s2) of neck movement was the most accurate determinant of livestock behavior classification. Using instantaneous acceleration of livestock body movement more precisely classified livestock behaviors than did GPS location-based distance metrics. When a tri-axis model is unavailable, GPS models will yield sufficiently reliable classification accuracy when an appropriate time interval is defined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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29 pages, 2763 KiB  
Article
A Novel Framework with High Diagnostic Sensitivity for Lung Cancer Detection by Electronic Nose
by Binchun Lu, Lidan Fu, Bo Nie, Zhiyun Peng and Hongying Liu
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5333; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235333 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6222
Abstract
The electronic nose (e-nose) system is a newly developing detection technology for its advantages of non-invasiveness, simple operation, and low cost. However, lung cancer screening through e-nose requires effective pattern recognition frameworks. Existing frameworks rely heavily on hand-crafted features and have relatively low [...] Read more.
The electronic nose (e-nose) system is a newly developing detection technology for its advantages of non-invasiveness, simple operation, and low cost. However, lung cancer screening through e-nose requires effective pattern recognition frameworks. Existing frameworks rely heavily on hand-crafted features and have relatively low diagnostic sensitivity. To handle these problems, gated recurrent unit based autoencoder (GRU-AE) is adopted to automatically extract features from temporal and high-dimensional e-nose data. Moreover, we propose a novel margin and sensitivity based ordering ensemble pruning (MSEP) model for effective classification. The proposed heuristic model aims to reduce missed diagnosis rate of lung cancer patients while maintaining a high rate of overall identification. In the experiments, five state-of-the-art classification models and two popular dimensionality reduction methods were involved for comparison to demonstrate the validity of the proposed GRU-AE-MSEP framework, through 214 collected breath samples measured by e-nose. Experimental results indicated that the proposed intelligent framework achieved high sensitivity of 94.22%, accuracy of 93.55%, and specificity of 92.80%, thereby providing a new practical means for wide disease screening by e-nose in medical scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Electronic Noses)
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15 pages, 5886 KiB  
Article
Detection of Performance of Hybrid Rice Pot-Tray Sowing Utilizing Machine Vision and Machine Learning Approach
by Wenhao Dong, Xu Ma, Hongwei Li, Suiyan Tan and Linjie Guo
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5332; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235332 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4425
Abstract
Monitoring the performance of hybrid rice seeding is very important for the seedling production line to adjust the sowing amount of the seeding device. The objective of this paper was to develop a system for the real-time online monitoring of the performance of [...] Read more.
Monitoring the performance of hybrid rice seeding is very important for the seedling production line to adjust the sowing amount of the seeding device. The objective of this paper was to develop a system for the real-time online monitoring of the performance of hybrid rice seeding based on embedded machine vision and machine learning technology. The embedded detection system captured images of pot trays that passed under the illuminant cabinet installed in the seedling production line. This paper proposed an algorithm for fixed threshold segmentation by analyzing the images with the exploratory analysis method. With the algorithm, the grid image and seed image were extracted from the pot tray image. The paper also proposed a method for obtaining pixel coordinates of gridlines from the grid image. Binary images of seeds were divided into small pieces, according to the pixel coordinates of gridlines. Each piece corresponded to a cell on the pot tray. By scanning the contours in each piece of the image to check whether there were seeds in the cell, the number of empty cells was counted and then used to calculate the missing rate of hybrid rice seeding. The seed number sowed in pot trays was monitored while using the machine learning approach. The experimental results demonstrated that it would consume 4.863 s for the device to process an image, which allowed for the detection of the missing rate and seed number in real-time at the rate of 500 trays per hour (7.2 s per tray). The average accuracy of the detection of missing rates of a seedling production line was 94.67%. The average accuracy of the detection of seed numbers was 95.68%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)
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26 pages, 3132 KiB  
Article
Vision-Based Attentiveness Determination Using Scalable HMM Based on Relevance Theory
by Prasertsak Tiawongsombat, Mun-Ho Jeong, Alongkorn Pirayawaraporn, Joong-Jae Lee and Joo-Seop Yun
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5331; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235331 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3696
Abstract
Attention capability is an essential component of human–robot interaction. Several robot attention models have been proposed which aim to enable a robot to identify the attentiveness of the humans with which it communicates and gives them its attention accordingly. However, previous proposed models [...] Read more.
Attention capability is an essential component of human–robot interaction. Several robot attention models have been proposed which aim to enable a robot to identify the attentiveness of the humans with which it communicates and gives them its attention accordingly. However, previous proposed models are often susceptible to noisy observations and result in the robot’s frequent and undesired shifts in attention. Furthermore, most approaches have difficulty adapting to change in the number of participants. To address these limitations, a novel attentiveness determination algorithm is proposed for determining the most attentive person, as well as prioritizing people based on attentiveness. The proposed algorithm, which is based on relevance theory, is named the Scalable Hidden Markov Model (Scalable HMM). The Scalable HMM allows effective computation and contributes an adaptation approach for human attentiveness; unlike conventional HMMs, Scalable HMM has a scalable number of states and observations and online adaptability for state transition probabilities, in terms of changes in the current number of states, i.e., the number of participants in a robot’s view. The proposed approach was successfully tested on image sequences (7567 frames) of individuals exhibiting a variety of actions (speaking, walking, turning head, and entering or leaving a robot’s view). From these experimental results, Scalable HMM showed a detection rate of 76% in determining the most attentive person and over 75% in prioritizing people’s attention with variation in the number of participants. Compared to recent attention approaches, Scalable HMM’s performance in people attention prioritization presents an approximately 20% improvement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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17 pages, 4109 KiB  
Article
A Low-Complexity Compressed Sensing Reconstruction Method for Heart Signal Biometric Recognition
by Jian Xiao, Fang Hu, Qiang Shao and Sizhuo Li
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5330; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235330 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4177
Abstract
Biometric systems allow recognition and verification of an individual through his or her physiological or behavioral characteristics. It is a growing field of research due to the increasing demand for secure and trustworthy authentication systems. Compressed sensing is a data compression acquisition method [...] Read more.
Biometric systems allow recognition and verification of an individual through his or her physiological or behavioral characteristics. It is a growing field of research due to the increasing demand for secure and trustworthy authentication systems. Compressed sensing is a data compression acquisition method that has been proposed in recent years. The sampling and compression of data is completed synchronously, avoiding waste of resources and meeting the requirements of small size and limited power consumption of wearable portable devices. In this work, a compression reconstruction method based on compression sensing was studied using bioelectric signals, which aimed to increase the limited resources of portable remote bioelectric signal recognition equipment. Using electrocardiograms (ECGs) and photoplethysmograms (PPGs) of heart signals as research data, an improved segmented weak orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP) algorithm was developed to compress and reconstruct the signals. Finally, feature values were extracted from the reconstructed signals for identification and analysis. The accuracy of the proposed method and the practicability of compression sensing in cardiac signal identification were verified. Experiments showed that the reconstructed ECG and PPG signal recognition rates were 95.65% and 91.31%, respectively, and that the residual value was less than 0.05 mV, which indicates that the proposed method can be effectively used for two bioelectric signal compression reconstructions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compressed Sensing in Biomedical Signal and Image Analysis)
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59 pages, 900 KiB  
Review
A Survey on Detection, Tracking and Identification in Radio Frequency-Based Device-Free Localization
by Stijn Denis, Rafael Berkvens and Maarten Weyn
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5329; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235329 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 6886
Abstract
The requirement of active localization techniques to attach a hardware device to the targets that need to be located can be difficult or even impossible for certain applications. For this reason, there has been an increasing interest in tagless or device-free localization (DFL) [...] Read more.
The requirement of active localization techniques to attach a hardware device to the targets that need to be located can be difficult or even impossible for certain applications. For this reason, there has been an increasing interest in tagless or device-free localization (DFL) approaches. In particular, the research domain of RF-based device-free localization has been steadily evolving since its inception slightly over a decade ago. Many novel techniques have been developed regarding the three core aspects of DFL: detection, tracking, and identification. The increasing use of channel state information (CSI) has contributed considerably to these developments. In particular, the progress it enabled regarding the exceptionally difficult `identification problem’ has been highly impressive. In this survey, we provide a comprehensive overview of this evolutionary process, describe essential DFL concepts and highlight several key techniques whose creation marked important milestones within this field of research. We do so in a structured manner in which each technique is categorized according to the DFL core aspect it emphasizes most. Additionally, we discuss current blocking issues within the state-of-the-art and suggest multiple high-level research directions which will aid in the search towards eventual solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surveys of Sensor Networks and Sensor Systems Deployments)
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15 pages, 1143 KiB  
Article
Phase Difference Measurement of Under-Sampled Sinusoidal Signals for InSAR System Phase Error Calibration
by Zhihui Yuan, Yice Gu, Xuemin Xing and Lifu Chen
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5328; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235328 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4627
Abstract
Phase difference measurement of sinusoidal signals can be used for phase error calibration of the spaceborne single-pass interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) system. However, there are currently very few papers devoted to the discussion of phase difference measurement of high-frequency internal calibration signals [...] Read more.
Phase difference measurement of sinusoidal signals can be used for phase error calibration of the spaceborne single-pass interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) system. However, there are currently very few papers devoted to the discussion of phase difference measurement of high-frequency internal calibration signals of the InSAR system, especially the discussion of sampling frequency selection and the corresponding measuring method when the high-frequency signals are sampled under the under-sampling condition. To solve this problem, a phase difference measurement method for high-frequency sinusoidal signals is proposed, and the corresponding sampling frequency selection criteria under the under-sampling condition is determined. First, according to the selection criteria, the appropriate under-sampling frequency was chosen to sample the two sinusoidal signals with the same frequency. Then, the sampled signals were filtered by limited recursive average filtering (LRAF) and coherently accumulated in the cycle of the baseband signal. Third, the filtered and accumulated signals were used to calculate the phase difference of the two sinusoidal signals using the discrete Fourier transform (DFT), digital correlation (DC), and Hilbert transform (HT)-based methods. Lastly, the measurement accuracy of the three methods were compared respectively by different simulation experiments. Theoretical analysis and experiments verified the effectiveness of the proposed method for the phase error calibration of the InSAR system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue InSAR Signal and Data Processing)
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16 pages, 7894 KiB  
Article
Deep-Learning-Based Real-Time Road Traffic Prediction Using Long-Term Evolution Access Data
by Byoungsuk Ji and Ellen J. Hong
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5327; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235327 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5991
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a method for deep-learning-based real-time road traffic predictions using long-term evolution (LTE) access data. The proposed system generates a road traffic speed learning model based on road speed data and historical LTE data collected from a plurality of [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose a method for deep-learning-based real-time road traffic predictions using long-term evolution (LTE) access data. The proposed system generates a road traffic speed learning model based on road speed data and historical LTE data collected from a plurality of base stations located within a predetermined radius from the road. Real-time LTE data were the input for the generated learning model in order to predict the real-time speed of traffic. Since the system was developed using a time-series-based road traffic speed learning model based on LTE data from the past, it is possible for it to be used for a road where the environment has changed. Moreover, even on roads where the collection of traffic data is invalid, such as a radio shadow area, it is possible to directly enter real-time wireless communications data into the traffic speed learning model to predict the traffic speed on the road in real time, and in turn, raise the accuracy of real-time road traffic predictions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Sensors and Sensing Systems for Driving and Transportation)
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11 pages, 3330 KiB  
Article
Velocity Control of Traveling-Wave Ultrasonic Motors Based on Stator Vibration Amplitude
by Zhiwei Fang, Tianyue Yang, Yuanfei Zhu, Shiyang Li and Ming Yang
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5326; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235326 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3520
Abstract
Nonlinearity and resonance frequency shift make it difficult to control the operation of the traveling-wave ultrasonic motors (TWUSMs) in a wide velocity and load range. In this paper, a velocity control scheme based on the stator vibration amplitude and the parallel resonance frequency [...] Read more.
Nonlinearity and resonance frequency shift make it difficult to control the operation of the traveling-wave ultrasonic motors (TWUSMs) in a wide velocity and load range. In this paper, a velocity control scheme based on the stator vibration amplitude and the parallel resonance frequency (VCBVF) of TWUSMs is proposed. Then, the stator vibration amplitude (SVA) and parallel resonance frequency ( f p ) are detected by a transformer ratio-arm bridge. Based on the linear relationship between the velocity and the SVA of TWUSMs, the proposed scheme achieves the control of the mechanical loop and the electrical loop. The linear relationship between the velocity and the SVA makes the mechanical loop achieve the target velocity efficiently, according to the SVA, and the electrical loop could provide the target SVA quickly. Experimental results show that the response time of velocity is 3–4 ms under different load torques and the overshoot is less than 22%. In addition, the proposed scheme improves the efficiency of TWUSMs due to f p tracking. Due to directing the SVA control, the proposed scheme can heighten the velocity response and the load adaptability of TWUSMs, and promote the application of TWUSMs under various conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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18 pages, 2752 KiB  
Article
Lower Body Kinematics Monitoring in Running Using Fabric-Based Wearable Sensors and Deep Convolutional Neural Networks
by Mohsen Gholami, Ahmad Rezaei, Tyler J. Cuthbert, Christopher Napier and Carlo Menon
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5325; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235325 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6917
Abstract
Continuous kinematic monitoring of runners is crucial to inform runners of inappropriate running habits. Motion capture systems are the gold standard for gait analysis, but they are spatially limited to laboratories. Recently, wearable sensors have gained attention as an unobtrusive method to analyze [...] Read more.
Continuous kinematic monitoring of runners is crucial to inform runners of inappropriate running habits. Motion capture systems are the gold standard for gait analysis, but they are spatially limited to laboratories. Recently, wearable sensors have gained attention as an unobtrusive method to analyze performance metrics and the health conditions of runners. In this study, we developed a system capable of estimating joint angles in sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes during running. A prototype with fiber strain sensors was fabricated. The positions of the sensors on the pelvis were optimized using a genetic algorithm. A cohort of ten people completed 15 min of running at five different speeds for gait analysis by our prototype device. The joint angles were estimated by a deep convolutional neural network in inter- and intra-participant scenarios. In intra-participant tests, root mean square error (RMSE) and normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) of less than 2.2° and 5.3%, respectively, were obtained for hip, knee, and ankle joints in sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes. The RMSE and NRMSE in inter-participant tests were less than 6.4° and 10%, respectively, in the sagittal plane. The accuracy of this device and methodology could yield potential applications as a soft wearable device for gait monitoring of runners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Motion Sensors and Textiles for Human Movement Analysis, Motor Activity and Healthy Lifestyle)
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17 pages, 1580 KiB  
Review
When Sensor-Cloud Meets Mobile Edge Computing
by Tian Wang, Yucheng Lu, Zhihan Cao, Lei Shu, Xi Zheng, Anfeng Liu and Mande Xie
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5324; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235324 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6124
Abstract
Sensor-clouds are a combination of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and cloud computing. The emergence of sensor-clouds has greatly enhanced the computing power and storage capacity of traditional WSNs via exploiting the advantages of cloud computing in resource utilization. However, there are still many [...] Read more.
Sensor-clouds are a combination of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and cloud computing. The emergence of sensor-clouds has greatly enhanced the computing power and storage capacity of traditional WSNs via exploiting the advantages of cloud computing in resource utilization. However, there are still many problems to be solved in sensor-clouds, such as the limitations of WSNs in terms of communication and energy, the high latency, and the security and privacy issues due to applying a cloud platform as the data processing and control center. In recent years, mobile edge computing has received increasing attention from industry and academia. The core of mobile edge computing is to migrate some or all of the computing tasks of the original cloud computing center to the vicinity of the data source, which gives mobile edge computing great potential in solving the shortcomings of sensor-clouds. In this paper, the latest research status of sensor-clouds is briefly analyzed and the characteristics of the existing sensor-clouds are summarized. After that we discuss the issues of sensor-clouds and propose some applications, especially a trust evaluation mechanism and trustworthy data collection which use mobile edge computing to solve the problems in sensor-clouds. Finally, we discuss research challenges and future research directions in leveraging mobile edge computing for sensor-clouds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advancement in Edge/Fog Computing for Intelligent IoT Applications)
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17 pages, 2306 KiB  
Article
Computer-Aided Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis Using a Support Vector Machine and Optical Coherence Tomography Features
by Carlo Cavaliere, Elisa Vilades, Mª C. Alonso-Rodríguez, María Jesús Rodrigo, Luis Emilio Pablo, Juan Manuel Miguel, Elena López-Guillén, Eva Mª Sánchez Morla, Luciano Boquete and Elena Garcia-Martin
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5323; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235323 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 6029
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the feasibility of diagnosing multiple sclerosis (MS) using optical coherence tomography (OCT) data and a support vector machine (SVM) as an automatic classifier. Forty-eight MS patients without symptoms of optic neuritis and forty-eight healthy control [...] Read more.
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the feasibility of diagnosing multiple sclerosis (MS) using optical coherence tomography (OCT) data and a support vector machine (SVM) as an automatic classifier. Forty-eight MS patients without symptoms of optic neuritis and forty-eight healthy control subjects were selected. Swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) was performed using a DRI (deep-range imaging) Triton OCT device (Topcon Corp., Tokyo, Japan). Mean values (right and left eye) for macular thickness (retinal and choroidal layers) and peripapillary area (retinal nerve fibre layer, retinal, ganglion cell layer—GCL, and choroidal layers) were compared between both groups. Based on the analysis of the area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUC), the 3 variables with the greatest discriminant capacity were selected to form the feature vector. A SVM was used as an automatic classifier, obtaining the confusion matrix using leave-one-out cross-validation. Classification performance was assessed with Matthew’s correlation coefficient (MCC) and the AUCCLASSIFIER. The most discriminant variables were found to be the total GCL++ thickness (between inner limiting membrane to inner nuclear layer boundaries), evaluated in the peripapillary area and macular retina thickness in the nasal quadrant of the outer and inner rings. Using the SVM classifier, we obtained the following values: MCC = 0.81, sensitivity = 0.89, specificity = 0.92, accuracy = 0.91, and AUCCLASSIFIER = 0.97. Our findings suggest that it is possible to classify control subjects and MS patients without previous optic neuritis by applying machine-learning techniques to study the structural neurodegeneration in the retina. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Sensors)
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18 pages, 300 KiB  
Article
A Generic Model of the Pseudo-Random Generator Based on Permutations Suitable for Security Solutions in Computationally-Constrained Environments
by Tomislav Unkašević, Zoran Banjac and Milan Milosavljević
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5322; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235322 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4940
Abstract
Symmetric cryptography methods have an important role in security solutions design in data protection. In that context, symmetric cryptography algorithms and pseudo-random generators connected with them have strong influence on designed security solutions. In the computationally constrained environment, security efficiency is also important. [...] Read more.
Symmetric cryptography methods have an important role in security solutions design in data protection. In that context, symmetric cryptography algorithms and pseudo-random generators connected with them have strong influence on designed security solutions. In the computationally constrained environment, security efficiency is also important. In this paper we proposed the design of a new efficient pseudo-random generator parameterized by two pseudo-random sequences. By the probabilistic, information-theoretic and number theory methods we analyze characteristics of the generator. Analysis produced several results. We derived sufficient conditions, regarding parameterizing sequences, so that the output sequence has uniform distribution. Sufficient conditions under which there is no correlation between parameterizing sequences and output sequence are also derived. Moreover, it is shown that mutual information between the output sequence and parameterizing sequences tends to zero when the generated output sequence length tends to infinity. Regarding periodicity, it is shown that, with appropriately selected parameterizing sequences, the period of the generated sequence is significantly longer than the periods of the parameterizing sequences. All this characteristics are desirable regarding security applications. The efficiency of the proposed construction can be achieved by selection parameterizing sequences from the set of efficient pseudo-random number generators, for example, multiple linear feedback shift registers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy in Wireless Sensor Networks: Advances and Challenges)
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19 pages, 3830 KiB  
Article
Location of Moving Targets in Substation Non-Line-of-Sight Environment
by Yubo Wang, Weimin Yang, Zheng Wang, Wenjun Zhou, Liang Li and Hongsen Zou
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5321; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235321 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2976
Abstract
In substations, a localization system based on a wireless sensor network (WSN) is a challenge, because the propagation of the measured signal could be blocked by various devices. In other words, non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation, where the signal propagation path is occluded, will affect [...] Read more.
In substations, a localization system based on a wireless sensor network (WSN) is a challenge, because the propagation of the measured signal could be blocked by various devices. In other words, non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation, where the signal propagation path is occluded, will affect measurement accuracy. A novel localization method based on a two-step weighted least squares and a probability distribution function is proposed to reduce the influence of NLOS error on the localization result. In this method, the initial multi-group localization result is obtained by the two-step weight weighted least-squares method, and the probability distribution function of the target is constructed by using the initial localization results, which can effectively reduce the influence of the NLOS error on the localization result. The simulation and test results show that the proposed method can keep the coordinate error within 30 cm in the substation. Compared with the localization result of two-step weighted least-squares (TSWLS) method, the average localization error is reduced by more than 1 m. Compared with the other two similar algorithms, the localization accuracy is improved by more than 50%. The tested results show that the localization performance of the method is robustness in the NLOS environment of the substation. While ensuring stability, the proposed algorithm is less efficient than some existing ones. However, under the calculation conditions of ordinary computers, the average single-point calculation time is less than 0.1 s, which can meet the needs of applications in substations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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17 pages, 2156 KiB  
Article
Development of an Error Model for a Factory-Calibrated Continuous Glucose Monitoring Sensor with 10-Day Lifetime
by Martina Vettoretti, Cristina Battocchio, Giovanni Sparacino and Andrea Facchinetti
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5320; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235320 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6054
Abstract
Factory-calibrated continuous glucose monitoring (FC-CGM) sensors are new devices used in type 1 diabetes (T1D) therapy to measure the glucose concentration almost continuously for 10–14 days without requiring any in vivo calibration. Understanding and modelling CGM errors is important when designing new tools [...] Read more.
Factory-calibrated continuous glucose monitoring (FC-CGM) sensors are new devices used in type 1 diabetes (T1D) therapy to measure the glucose concentration almost continuously for 10–14 days without requiring any in vivo calibration. Understanding and modelling CGM errors is important when designing new tools for T1D therapy. Available literature CGM error models are not suitable to describe the FC-CGM sensor error, since their domain of validity is limited to 12-h time windows, i.e., the time between two consecutive in vivo calibrations. The aim of this paper is to develop a model of the error of FC-CGM sensors. The dataset used contains 79 FC-CGM traces collected by the Dexcom G6 sensor. The model is designed to dissect the error into its three main components: effect of plasma-interstitium kinetics, calibration error, and random measurement noise. The main novelties are the model extension to cover the entire sensor lifetime and the use of a new single-step identification procedure. The final error model, which combines a first-order linear dynamic model to describe plasma-interstitium kinetics, a second-order polynomial model to describe calibration error, and an autoregressive model to describe measurement noise, proved to be suitable to describe FC-CGM sensor errors, in particular improving the estimation of the physiological time-delay. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors in Healthcare: Methods, Algorithms, Applications)
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28 pages, 17784 KiB  
Article
Towards Tangible Vision for the Visually Impaired through 2D Multiarray Braille Display
by Seondae Kim, Yeongil Ryu, Jinsoo Cho and Eun-Seok Ryu
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5319; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235319 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6768
Abstract
This paper presents two methodologies for delivering multimedia content to visually impaired people with the use of a haptic device and braille display. Based on our previous research, the research using Kinect v2 and haptic device with 2D+ (RGB frame with depth) data [...] Read more.
This paper presents two methodologies for delivering multimedia content to visually impaired people with the use of a haptic device and braille display. Based on our previous research, the research using Kinect v2 and haptic device with 2D+ (RGB frame with depth) data has the limitations of slower operational speed while reconstructing object details. Thus, this study focuses on the development of 2D multiarray braille display using an electronic book translator application because of its accuracy and high speed. This approach provides mobility and uses 2D multiarray braille display to represent media content contour more efficiently. In conclusion, this study achieves the representation of considerably massive text content compared to previous 1D braille displays. Besides, it also represents illustrations and figures to braille displays through quantization and binarization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactile Sensors for Robotic Applications)
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13 pages, 6480 KiB  
Article
Polymeric Transducers: An Inkjet Printed B-Field Sensor with Resistive Readout Strategy
by Bruno Andò, Salvatore Baglio, Ruben Crispino and Vincenzo Marletta
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5318; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235318 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3823
Abstract
Magnetic field sensors are successfully used in numerous application contexts such as position sensing, speed detection, current detection, contactless switches, vehicle detection, and electronic compasses. In this paper, an inkjet printed magnetic sensor, based on the magneto-mechanical sensing principle, is presented together with [...] Read more.
Magnetic field sensors are successfully used in numerous application contexts such as position sensing, speed detection, current detection, contactless switches, vehicle detection, and electronic compasses. In this paper, an inkjet printed magnetic sensor, based on the magneto-mechanical sensing principle, is presented together with a physical model describing its physical behavior and experimental results. The main novelties of the proposed solution consist of its low cost, rapid prototyping (printing and drying time), disposability, and in the use of a commercial low-cost printer. A measurement survey has been carried out by investigating magnetic fields belonging to the range 0–27 mT and for different values of the excitation current forced in the actuation coil. Experimental results demonstrate the suitability of both the proposed sensing strategy and model developed. In particular, in the case of an excitation current of 100 mA, the device responsivity and resolution are 3700 µε/T and 0.458 mT, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Sensors)
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21 pages, 4782 KiB  
Article
Super-Resolution for Improving EEG Spatial Resolution using Deep Convolutional Neural Network—Feasibility Study
by Moonyoung Kwon, Sangjun Han, Kiwoong Kim and Sung Chan Jun
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5317; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235317 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6622
Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG) has relatively poor spatial resolution and may yield incorrect brain dynamics and distort topography; thus, high-density EEG systems are necessary for better analysis. Conventional methods have been proposed to solve these problems, however, they depend on parameters or brain models that [...] Read more.
Electroencephalography (EEG) has relatively poor spatial resolution and may yield incorrect brain dynamics and distort topography; thus, high-density EEG systems are necessary for better analysis. Conventional methods have been proposed to solve these problems, however, they depend on parameters or brain models that are not simple to address. Therefore, new approaches are necessary to enhance EEG spatial resolution while maintaining its data properties. In this work, we investigated the super-resolution (SR) technique using deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) with simulated EEG data with white Gaussian and real brain noises, and experimental EEG data obtained during an auditory evoked potential task. SR EEG simulated data with white Gaussian noise or brain noise demonstrated a lower mean squared error and higher correlations with sensor information, and detected sources even more clearly than did low resolution (LR) EEG. In addition, experimental SR data also demonstrated far smaller errors for N1 and P2 components, and yielded reasonable localized sources, while LR data did not. We verified our proposed approach’s feasibility and efficacy, and conclude that it may be possible to explore various brain dynamics even with a small number of sensors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Approaches to EEG Signal Processing)
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17 pages, 1625 KiB  
Article
A Personalized Approach to Improve Walking Detection in Real-Life Settings: Application to Children with Cerebral Palsy
by Lena Carcreff, Anisoara Paraschiv-Ionescu, Corinna N. Gerber, Christopher J. Newman, Stéphane Armand and Kamiar Aminian
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5316; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235316 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3566
Abstract
Although many methods have been developed to detect walking by using body-worn inertial sensors, their performances decline when gait patterns become abnormal, as seen in children with cerebral palsy (CP). The aim of this study was to evaluate if fine-tuning an existing walking [...] Read more.
Although many methods have been developed to detect walking by using body-worn inertial sensors, their performances decline when gait patterns become abnormal, as seen in children with cerebral palsy (CP). The aim of this study was to evaluate if fine-tuning an existing walking bouts (WB) detection algorithm by various thresholds, customized at the individual or group level, could improve WB detection in children with CP and typical development (TD). Twenty children (10 CP, 10 TD) wore 4 inertial sensors on their lower limbs during laboratory and out-laboratory assessments. Features extracted from the gyroscope signals recorded in the laboratory were used to tune thresholds of an existing walking detection algorithm for each participant (individual-based personalization: Indiv) or for each group (population-based customization: Pop). Out-of-laboratory recordings were analyzed for WB detection with three versions of the algorithm (i.e., original fixed thresholds and adapted thresholds based on the Indiv and Pop methods), and the results were compared against video reference data. The clinical impact was assessed by quantifying the effect of WB detection error on the estimated walking speed distribution. The two customized Indiv and Pop methods both improved WB detection (higher, sensitivity, accuracy and precision), with the individual-based personalization showing the best results. Comparison of walking speed distribution obtained with the best of the two methods showed a significant difference for 8 out of 20 participants. The personalized Indiv method excluded non-walking activities that were initially wrongly interpreted as extremely slow walking with the initial method using fixed thresholds. Customized methods, particularly individual-based personalization, appear more efficient to detect WB in daily-life settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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14 pages, 1428 KiB  
Article
Gait Quality Assessment in Survivors from Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: An Instrumented Approach Based on Inertial Sensors
by Valeria Belluscio, Elena Bergamini, Marco Tramontano, Amaranta Orejel Bustos, Giulia Allevi, Rita Formisano, Giuseppe Vannozzi and Maria Gabriella Buzzi
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5315; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235315 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4874
Abstract
Despite existing evidence that gait disorders are a common consequence of severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI), the literature describing gait instability in sTBI survivors is scant. Thus, the present study aims at quantifying gait patterns in sTBI through wearable inertial sensors and investigating [...] Read more.
Despite existing evidence that gait disorders are a common consequence of severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI), the literature describing gait instability in sTBI survivors is scant. Thus, the present study aims at quantifying gait patterns in sTBI through wearable inertial sensors and investigating the association of sensor-based gait quality indices with the scores of commonly administered clinical scales. Twenty healthy adults (control group, CG) and 20 people who suffered from a sTBI were recruited. The Berg balance scale, community balance and mobility scale, and dynamic gait index (DGI) were administered to sTBI participants, who were further divided into two subgroups, severe and very severe, according to their score in the DGI. Participants performed the 10 m walk, the Figure-of-8 walk, and the Fukuda stepping tests, while wearing five inertial sensors. Significant differences were found among the three groups, discriminating not only between CG and sTBI, but also for walking ability levels. Several indices displayed a significant correlation with clinical scales scores, especially in the 10 m walking and Figure-of-8 walk tests. Results show that the use of wearable sensors allows the obtainment of quantitative information about a patient’s gait disorders and discrimination between different levels of walking abilities, supporting the rehabilitative staff in designing tailored therapeutic interventions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors in the Evaluation of Gait and Balance in Neurological Disorders)
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12 pages, 2801 KiB  
Article
A Portable and Wireless Multi-Channel Acquisition System for Physiological Signal Measurements
by Shing-Hong Liu, Jia-Jung Wang and Tan-Hsu Tan
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5314; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235314 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4406
Abstract
We propose a portable and wireless acquisition system to help consumers or users register important physiological signals. The acquisition system mainly consists of a portable device, a graphic user interface (GUI), and an application program for displaying the signals on a notebook (NB) [...] Read more.
We propose a portable and wireless acquisition system to help consumers or users register important physiological signals. The acquisition system mainly consists of a portable device, a graphic user interface (GUI), and an application program for displaying the signals on a notebook (NB) computer or a smart device. Essential characteristics of the portable device include eight measuring channels, a powerful microcontroller unit, a lithium battery, Bluetooth 3.0 data transmission, and a built-in 2 GB flash memory. In addition, the signals that are measured can be displayed on a tablet, a smart phone, or a notebook computer concurrently. Additionally, the proposed system provides extra power supply sources of ±3 V for the usage of external circuits. On the other hand, consumers or users can design their own sensing circuits and combine them with this system to carry out ubiquitous physiological studies. Four major advantages in the proposed system are the capability of combining it with a NB computer or a smart phone to display the signals being measured in real time, the superior mobility due to its own independent power system, flash memory, and good expandability. Briefly, this acquisition system offers consumers or users a convenient and portable studying tool to measure dynamic vital signals of interest in psychological and physiological research fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Medical Applications of Sensor Systems and Devices)
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13 pages, 3486 KiB  
Article
Hydrogen Sensor Based on Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy
by Viacheslav Avetisov, Ove Bjoroey, Junyang Wang, Peter Geiser and Ketil Gorm Paulsen
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5313; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235313 - 3 Dec 2019
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 12741
Abstract
A laser-based hydrogen (H2) sensor using wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) was developed for the contactless measurement of molecular hydrogen. The sensor uses a distributed feedback (DFB) laser to target the H2 quadrupole absorption line at 2121.8 nm. The H2 [...] Read more.
A laser-based hydrogen (H2) sensor using wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) was developed for the contactless measurement of molecular hydrogen. The sensor uses a distributed feedback (DFB) laser to target the H2 quadrupole absorption line at 2121.8 nm. The H2 absorption line exhibited weak collisional broadening and strong collisional narrowing effects. Both effects were investigated by comparing measurements of the absorption linewidth with detailed models using different line profiles including collisional narrowing effects. The collisional broadening and narrowing parameters were determined for pure hydrogen as well as for hydrogen in nitrogen and air. The performance of the sensor was evaluated and the sensor applicability for H2 measurement in a range of 0–10 %v of H2 was demonstrated. A precision of 0.02 %v was achieved with 1 m of absorption pathlength (0.02 %v∙m) and 1 s of integration time. For the optimum averaging time of 20 s, precision of 0.005 %v∙m was achieved. A good linear relationship between H2 concentration and sensor response was observed. A simple and robust transmitter–receiver configuration of the sensor allows in situ installation in harsh industrial environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)
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9 pages, 1520 KiB  
Article
Temperature-Independent Gas Pressure Sensor with High Birefringence Photonic Crystal Fiber-Based Reflective Lyot Filter
by Bo Huang, Ying Wang and Chun Mao
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5312; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235312 - 2 Dec 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4167
Abstract
A novel temperature-independent gas pressure sensor based on a reflective fiber Lyot filter is presented in this paper. The reflective fiber Lyot filter is simply consist of a fiber polarizer and a segment of hollow-core photonic bandgap fiber (HB-PCF). The HB-PCF plays the [...] Read more.
A novel temperature-independent gas pressure sensor based on a reflective fiber Lyot filter is presented in this paper. The reflective fiber Lyot filter is simply consist of a fiber polarizer and a segment of hollow-core photonic bandgap fiber (HB-PCF). The HB-PCF plays the role of birefringent cavity in the reflective fiber Lyot filter and works as the sensor head in the gas pressure sensor. Experiment results show that the responses of the sensor to gas pressure and temperature are 3.94 nm/MPa and −0.009 nm/°C, indicating that the proposed gas pressure is sensitive to gas pressure rather than temperature. Coupled with the advantages of simple structure, easy manufacture, high sensitivity and temperature independent, the proposed reflective fiber Lyot filter-based gas pressure sensor holds great potential application in the field of gas pressure monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors and Photonic Devices)
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56 pages, 7837 KiB  
Review
Nanomaterials for Healthcare Biosensing Applications
by Muqsit Pirzada and Zeynep Altintas
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5311; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235311 - 2 Dec 2019
Cited by 205 | Viewed by 16407
Abstract
In recent years, an increasing number of nanomaterials have been explored for their applications in biomedical diagnostics, making their applications in healthcare biosensing a rapidly evolving field. Nanomaterials introduce versatility to the sensing platforms and may even allow mobility between different detection mechanisms. [...] Read more.
In recent years, an increasing number of nanomaterials have been explored for their applications in biomedical diagnostics, making their applications in healthcare biosensing a rapidly evolving field. Nanomaterials introduce versatility to the sensing platforms and may even allow mobility between different detection mechanisms. The prospect of a combination of different nanomaterials allows an exploitation of their synergistic additive and novel properties for sensor development. This paper covers more than 290 research works since 2015, elaborating the diverse roles played by various nanomaterials in the biosensing field. Hence, we provide a comprehensive review of the healthcare sensing applications of nanomaterials, covering carbon allotrope-based, inorganic, and organic nanomaterials. These sensing systems are able to detect a wide variety of clinically relevant molecules, like nucleic acids, viruses, bacteria, cancer antigens, pharmaceuticals and narcotic drugs, toxins, contaminants, as well as entire cells in various sensing media, ranging from buffers to more complex environments such as urine, blood or sputum. Thus, the latest advancements reviewed in this paper hold tremendous potential for the application of nanomaterials in the early screening of diseases and point-of-care testing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plasmonic Sensing)
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Graphical abstract

22 pages, 11521 KiB  
Article
Robust Cylindrical Panorama Stitching for Low-Texture Scenes Based on Image Alignment Using Deep Learning and Iterative Optimization
by Lai Kang, Yingmei Wei, Jie Jiang and Yuxiang Xie
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5310; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235310 - 2 Dec 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8085
Abstract
Cylindrical panorama stitching is able to generate high resolution images of a scene with a wide field-of-view (FOV), making it a useful scene representation for applications like environmental sensing and robot localization. Traditional image stitching methods based on hand-crafted features are effective for [...] Read more.
Cylindrical panorama stitching is able to generate high resolution images of a scene with a wide field-of-view (FOV), making it a useful scene representation for applications like environmental sensing and robot localization. Traditional image stitching methods based on hand-crafted features are effective for constructing a cylindrical panorama from a sequence of images in the case when there are sufficient reliable features in the scene. However, these methods are unable to handle low-texture environments where no reliable feature correspondence can be established. This paper proposes a novel two-step image alignment method based on deep learning and iterative optimization to address the above issue. In particular, a light-weight end-to-end trainable convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture called ShiftNet is proposed to estimate the initial shifts between images, which is further optimized in a sub-pixel refinement procedure based on a specified camera motion model. Extensive experiments on a synthetic dataset, rendered photo-realistic images, and real images were carried out to evaluate the performance of our proposed method. Both qualitative and quantitative experimental results demonstrate that cylindrical panorama stitching based on our proposed image alignment method leads to significant improvements over traditional feature based methods and recent deep learning based methods for challenging low-texture environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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20 pages, 5335 KiB  
Article
Effect of Catadioptric Component Postposition on Lens Focal Length and Imaging Surface in a Mirror Binocular System
by Fuqiang Zhou, Yuanze Chen, Mingxuan Zhou and Xiaosong Li
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5309; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235309 - 2 Dec 2019
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3663
Abstract
The binocular vision system is widely used in three-dimensional measurement, drone navigation, and many other fields. However, due to the high cost, large volume, and inconvenient operation of the two-camera system, it is difficult to meet the weight and load requirements of the [...] Read more.
The binocular vision system is widely used in three-dimensional measurement, drone navigation, and many other fields. However, due to the high cost, large volume, and inconvenient operation of the two-camera system, it is difficult to meet the weight and load requirements of the UAV system. Therefore, the study of mirror binocular with single camera was carried out. Existing mirror binocular systems place the catadioptric components in front of the lens, which makes the volume of measurement system still large. In this paper, a catadioptric postposition system is designed, which places the prism behind the lens to achieve mirror binocular imaging. The influence of the post prism on the focal length and imaging surface of the optical system is analyzed. The feasibility of post-mirror binocular imaging are verified by experiments, and it is reasonable to compensate the focal length change by changing the back focal plane position. This research laid the foundation for the subsequent research on the 3D reconstruction of the novel mirror binocular system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)
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25 pages, 2595 KiB  
Article
Embodied Emotion Recognition Based on Life-Logging
by Ayoung Cho, Hyunwoo Lee, Youngho Jo and Mincheol Whang
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5308; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235308 - 2 Dec 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3945
Abstract
Embodied emotion is associated with interaction among a person’s physiological responses, behavioral patterns, and environmental factors. However, most methods for determining embodied emotion has been considered on only fragmentary independent variables and not their inter-connectivity. This study suggests a method for determining the [...] Read more.
Embodied emotion is associated with interaction among a person’s physiological responses, behavioral patterns, and environmental factors. However, most methods for determining embodied emotion has been considered on only fragmentary independent variables and not their inter-connectivity. This study suggests a method for determining the embodied emotion considering interactions among three factors: the physiological response, behavioral patterns, and an environmental factor based on life-logging. The physiological response was analyzed as heart rate variability (HRV) variables. The behavioral pattern was calculated from features of Global Positioning System (GPS) locations that indicate spatiotemporal property. The environmental factor was analyzed as the ambient noise, which is an external stimulus. These data were mapped with the emotion of that time. The emotion was evaluated on a seven-point scale for arousal level and valence level according to Russell’s model of emotion. These data were collected from 79 participants in daily life for two weeks. Their relationships among data were analyzed by the multiple regression analysis, after pre-processing the respective data. As a result, significant differences between the arousal level and valence level of emotion were observed based on their relations. The contributions of this study can be summarized as follows: (1) The emotion was recognized in real-life for a more practical application; (2) distinguishing the interactions that determine the levels of arousal and positive emotion by analyzing relationships of individuals’ life-log data. Through this, it was verified that emotion can be changed according to the interaction among the three factors, which was overlooked in previous emotion recognition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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18 pages, 1035 KiB  
Article
User Association and Power Control for Energy Efficiency Maximization in M2M-Enabled Uplink Heterogeneous Networks with NOMA
by Shuang Zhang and Guixia Kang
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5307; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235307 - 2 Dec 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3238
Abstract
To support a vast number of devices with less energy consumption, we propose a new user association and power control scheme for machine to machine enabled heterogeneous networks with non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA), where a mobile user (MU) acting as a machine-type communication [...] Read more.
To support a vast number of devices with less energy consumption, we propose a new user association and power control scheme for machine to machine enabled heterogeneous networks with non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA), where a mobile user (MU) acting as a machine-type communication gateway can decode and forward both the information of machine-type communication devices and its own data to the base station (BS) directly. MU association and power control are jointly considered in the formulated as optimization problem for energy efficiency (EE) maximization under the constraints of minimum data rate requirements of MUs. A many-to-one MU association matching algorithm is firstly proposed based on the theory of matching game. By taking swap matching operations among MUs, BSs, and sub-channels, the original problem can be solved by dealing with the EE maximization for each sub-channel. Then, two power control algorithms are proposed, where the tools of sequential optimization, fractional programming, and exhaustive search have been employed. Simulation results are provided to demonstrate the optimality properties of our algorithms under different parameter settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internet of Things and Sensors Networks in 5G Wireless Communications)
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23 pages, 8156 KiB  
Article
Permafrost Deformation Monitoring Along the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Engineering Corridor Using InSAR Observations with Multi-Sensor SAR Datasets from 1997–2018
by Zhengjia Zhang, Mengmeng Wang, Zhijie Wu and Xiuguo Liu
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5306; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19235306 - 2 Dec 2019
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 5561
Abstract
As the highest elevation permafrost region in the world, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) permafrost is quickly degrading due to global warming, climate change and human activities. The Qinghai-Tibet Engineering Corridor (QTEC), located in the QTP tundra, is of growing interest due to the [...] Read more.
As the highest elevation permafrost region in the world, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) permafrost is quickly degrading due to global warming, climate change and human activities. The Qinghai-Tibet Engineering Corridor (QTEC), located in the QTP tundra, is of growing interest due to the increased infrastructure development in the remote QTP area. The ground, including the embankment of permafrost engineering, is prone to instability, primarily due to the seasonal freezing and thawing cycles and increase in human activities. In this study, we used ERS-1 (1997–1999), ENVISAT (2004–2010) and Sentinel-1A (2015–2018) images to assess the ground deformation along QTEC using time-series InSAR. We present a piecewise deformation model including periodic deformation related to seasonal components and interannual linear subsidence trends was presented. Analysis of the ERS-1 result show ground deformation along QTEC ranged from −5 to +5 mm/year during the 1997–1999 observation period. For the ENVISAT and Sentinel-1A results, the estimated deformation rate ranged from −20 to +10 mm/year. Throughout the whole observation period, most of the QTEC appeared to be stable. Significant ground deformation was detected in three sections of the corridor in the Sentinel-1A results. An analysis of the distribution of the thaw slumping region in the Tuotuohe area reveals that ground deformation was associated with the development of thaw slumps in one of the three sections. This research indicates that the InSAR technique could be crucial for monitoring the ground deformation along QTEC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue InSAR Signal and Data Processing)
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