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Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Physiology and Metabolism".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 7822

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Prof. Dr. Weijie Jiang

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Guest Editor

Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
Interests: greenhouse cultivation; sludge composting; compost quality; vegetables
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Min Wei

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Guest Editor

College of Horticultural Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an 271018, China
Interests: greenhouse vegetables; greenhouse structures and environmental control; the physiology and ecology of greenhouse vegetables and their cultivation; hydroponics; factory seedling production
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Protected cultivation, also known as controlled environment agriculture (CEA) or greenhouse cultivation, is a modern agricultural practice used to grow horticultural crops under controlled environmental conditions. This method provides several advantages, including protection from adverse weather, pests, and diseases, as well as the ability to optimize growing conditions for maximum crop yield and quality. It typically utilizes greenhouse structures that allow growers to control various environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, light intensity, and CO₂ levels, maintaining ideal conditions for plant growth. This cultivation method is suitable for various horticultural crops, including vegetables, fruits, flowers, and ornamental plants, enabling year-round production, disease and pest management, extended growing seasons, improved crop quality, and prolonged post-harvest freshness.

At present, protected cultivation of horticultural crops has evolved significantly with a strong emphasis on sustainability. This Special Issue will welcome all research related to protective cultivation, also including, but not limited to, the following topics:

Greenhouse technology;
Hydroponics and soilless cultivation;
Fertigation;
Integrated pest management;
Vertical farming;
Sustainable substrates;
Organic and sustainable practices.

Prof. Dr. Weijie Jiang
Prof. Dr. Min Wei
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Plants is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

controlled environment agriculture (CEA)
protected cultivation
greenhouse
tunnel
hydroponics
soilless cultivation
vertical farming

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Related Special Issue

Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability in Plants (10 articles)

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 1637 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Water Volume for Carrots (Daucus carota) Grown in a Deep-Water Culture System

by Dario Rueda Kunz, Haydee Laza, Jyotsna Sharma, Marcos X. Sanchez-Plata and Catherine Simpson

Plants 2026, 15(7), 1101; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15071101 - 3 Apr 2026

Viewed by 222

Abstract

Efficient water management is essential for sustainable agriculture, particularly for crops like carrots that are traditionally grown in soil systems with high water consumption, averaging 4500–6000 m³/ha. Hydroponics offers a potential alternative due to its higher water-use efficiency, yet root crops have been understudied because of system design and economic challenges. This study evaluated the effects of different hydroponic solution volumes on the growth of carrots (Daucus carota cv. Mokum) in a Deep-Water Culture (DWC) system to address knowledge gaps regarding their feasibility in soilless production. Experiments were conducted in a controlled greenhouse using three solution volume treatments (50% with 10.75 L, 75% with 16.13 L, and 100% with 21.50 L) applied to 12 plants per treatment across two repeated experiments. Biomass production, water use efficiency, and total carotenoid concentration were assessed after eight weeks. The 100% (21.50 L) volume treatment produced the greatest shoot and root biomass, whereas the 50% (10.75 L) volume treatment significantly increased total carotenoid concentration, particularly in the second trial. Despite lower water inputs, water use efficiency did not differ statistically among treatments. These results indicate that carrots can be successfully cultivated in DWC systems, though further optimization, such as using narrower containers, may be required to improve efficiency and competitiveness with soil-based production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 6299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of VvSR34a Gene from Grapevine in Response to Salt Stress

by Yu Li, Zhen Gao, Yinping Li, Yuanpeng Du and Haibo Wang

Plants 2026, 15(7), 1092; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15071092 - 2 Apr 2026

Viewed by 199

Abstract

Salt stress severely restricts grape (Vitis vinifera L.) production. Serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, as a class of RNA-binding proteins, play important roles in plant growth, development and stress responses. However, the function and regulatory mechanism of VvSR34a in grape salt tolerance remain unclear. In this study, grape callus and cutting seedlings were used as materials to explore the role and molecular mechanism of VvSR34a in grape salt stress response. The results showed that, under 100 mM NaCl treatment, the relative level of VvSR34a in grape callus exhibited a ‘first increase and then decrease’ pattern, reaching a peak at 2 h, and the gene was localized in the nucleus. Transgenic experiments confirmed that the overexpression of VvSR34a significantly enhanced salt tolerance in grape callus and cuttings, as evidenced by better growth status, higher chlorophyll content and root activity, as well as lower electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde (MDA) content under salt stress. In contrast, the silencing of VvSR34a significantly increased salt sensitivity in grapes. Y2H and LCI assays verified that VvSR34a physically interacts with VvCOP9. VvCOP9 may play a negative regulatory role in the salt stress response of the grapevine, and through the loss of the high salt-tolerant phenotype in the VvSR34a/VvCOP9-RNAi lines, it demonstrated that VvCOP9 is genetically upstream of VvSR34a. Furthermore, the ubiquitination and degradation assay demonstrated that VvCOP9 can significantly promote the degradation of VvSR34a. RNA-seq analysis showed that a total of 2834 differentially expressed genes and 202 alternative splicing events were detected in VvSR34a overexpression lines. These differentially expressed genes were significantly enriched in ATPase activity, redox and hormone signaling pathways. This study demonstrates that VvSR34a positively regulates salt tolerance in grapes, providing an important theoretical basis for molecular breeding of salt-tolerant grapevines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 2454 KB

Open AccessArticle

High Green Light Substitution Reduces Tipburn Incidence in Romaine Lettuce Grown in a Plant Factory with Artificial Lighting

by Thanit Ruangsangaram, Maitree Munyanont, Duyen T. P. Nguyen, Michiko Takagaki and Na Lu

Plants 2026, 15(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15020208 - 9 Jan 2026

Viewed by 541

Abstract

Optimizing lighting in plant factory with artificial lighting (PFAL) is essential for balancing lettuce growth and quality. Rapid plant growth in PFAL often induces physiological disorders, especially tipburn, which is associated with calcium deficiency in newly emerging leaves. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different proportions of green light substitutions on tipburn incidence and the growth of romaine lettuce cultivated in a PFAL. Plants were grown under different proportions of green light at a total light intensity of 200 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹, consisting of 40% (G40), 60% (G60), 80% (G80), and 100% (G100) green light. The results showed that increasing the proportion of green light significantly reduced tipburn incidence from 49% to 25%, while shoot fresh weight declined by 7% and 25% when green light substitution increased to 80% and 100%, respectively. Net CO₂ assimilation of outer leaves remained similar among G40, G60, and G80 but declined by approximately 13% under 100% green light (G100). Higher proportions of green light markedly increased calcium accumulation and chlorophyll content in the inner leaves. These results suggest that higher proportions of green light may improve the inner-leaf light environment, enhance inner-leaf physiological function, and thereby reduce tipburn incidence. Substituting 60% green light achieved a good balance between growth performance and tipburn reduction. This approach offers an effective method to mitigate tipburn and improve lettuce quality in PFALs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 3037 KB

Open AccessArticle

Expression Profiling of the Aluminum-Activated Malate Transporter (ALMT) Gene Family in Pumpkin in Response to Aluminum Stress and Exogenous Polyamines

by Xinqi Guo, Mingshan Wang, Qiang Chen, Ying Zhang and Chong Zhang

Plants 2025, 14(24), 3745; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14243745 - 9 Dec 2025

Viewed by 649

Abstract

Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a key constraint on plant growth in acidic soils. To counteract Al stress, plants secrete organic acids such as malate from their roots to chelate Al³⁺, a process facilitated by Al-activated malate transporters (ALMTs). In this study, we identified 15 ALMT genes in the pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) genome, which were phylogenetically classified into four subclades. Expression analysis revealed that several ALMTs, including CmaALMT5, CmaALMT6, and CmaALMT12, were upregulated in response to increasing Al concentrations. Exogenous application of polyamines (spermine, spermidine, and putrescine) alleviated Al-induced root growth inhibition, correlating with enhanced malate secretion. Notably, each polyamine differentially regulated specific ALMT genes: spermidine elevated the expression of CmaALMT1, CmaALMT6, CmaALMT13, and CmaALMT15; spermine induced CmaALMT1, CmaALMT2, CmaALMT3, CmaALMT11, and CmaALMT14; while putrescine significantly upregulated CmaALMT1, CmaALMT3, and CmaALMT4. These results suggest that polyamines may enhance Al tolerance in pumpkin through gene-specific transcriptional regulation of the ALMT family and promotion of root malate secretion, though further evidence is required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2614 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shade Nets Improve Gas Exchange and Chlorophyll Fluorescence in Young Avocado Trees Grown Under Mediterranean Conditions

by Maria Tasa, Eduardo Badal, Luis Bonet, María Amparo Martínez-Gimeno and Juan Gabriel Pérez-Pérez

Plants 2025, 14(23), 3550; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233550 - 21 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 674

Abstract

Avocado trees (Persea americana Mill.) grown in Mediterranean conditions are exposed to high temperatures and intense solar radiation during summer, factors that can severely compromise plant water status and key physiological processes. To minimize these stressful conditions, the use of shade nets is an agronomical technique that permits the creation of an optimal microclimate for crop development. Thus, the aim was to evaluate the effects of shade netting on the physiological response of young avocado trees commercially grown under Mediterranean climatic conditions. The main results showed similar circadian rhythms of plant water status under both crop systems (open-air and shaded) in both seasons. However, the use of shading nets altered the circadian rhythm of leaf gas exchange. In summer, stomatal conductance (g_s) remained significantly more open after midday in shaded trees, allowing higher leaf transpiration (E_leaf) and cooler leaf temperature (T_leaf). A similar daily pattern was observed in chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters, including the effective quantum yield of photosystem II (ΦPSII) and the electron transport rate (ETR), with the lowest values occurring at midday. In shaded plants, ΦPSII and ETR remained higher after midday than in open-air, suggesting a lower photochemical inhibition of photosynthesis caused by heat stress and photoinhibition. Thus, the use of shade nets represents an agronomic alternative technique for cultivating avocados in Mediterranean climate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 2506 KB

Open AccessArticle

Light Regulation Under Equivalent Cumulative Light Integral: Impacts on Growth, Quality, and Energy Efficiency of Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) in Plant Factories

by Jianwen Chen, Cuifang Zhu, Ruifang Li, Zihan Zhou, Chen Miao, Hong Wang, Rongguang Li, Shaofang Wu, Yongxue Zhang, Jiawei Cui, Xiaotao Ding and Yuping Jiang

Plants 2025, 14(22), 3469; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14223469 - 13 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1133

Abstract

Facing the significant challenges posed by global population growth and urbanization, plant factories, as an efficient closed cultivation system capable of precise environmental control, have become a key direction in the development of modern agriculture. However, high energy consumption, particularly lighting (which accounts for over 50%), remains a major bottleneck limiting their large-scale application. This study systematically explored the effects of dynamic light regulation strategies on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth, physiological and biochemical indicators (such as chlorophyll, photosynthetic, and fluorescence parameters), nutritional quality, energy utilization efficiency, and post-harvest shelf life. Four different light treatments were designed: a stepwise increasing photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) from 160 to 340 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ (T1), a constant light intensity of 250 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ (T2), a three-stage strategy with high light intensity in the middle phase (T3), and a three-stage strategy with sequentially increasing light (T4). The results showed that the T4 treatment exhibited the best overall performance. Compared with the T2 treatment, the T4 treatment increased biomass by 23.4%, significantly improved the net photosynthetic rate by 50.32% at the final measurement, and increased ascorbic acid (AsA) and protein content by 33.36% and 33.19%, respectively. Additionally, this treatment showed the highest energy use efficiency. On the 30th day of treatment, the light energy use efficiency (LUE) and electrical energy use efficiency (EUE) of the T4 treatment were significantly increased, by 23.41% and 23.9%, respectively, compared with the T2 treatment. In summary, dynamic light regulation can synergistically improve crop yield, chlorophyll content, photosynthetic efficiency, nutritional quality, and energy utilization efficiency, providing a theoretical basis and solution for precise light regulation and energy consumption reduction in plant factories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 1346 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrient Diagnosis and Precise Fertilization Model Construction of ‘87-1’ Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Cultivated in a Facility

by Haibo Wang, Xiaolong Wang, Chang Liu, Xiangbin Shi, Xiaohao Ji, Shengyuan Wang and Tianzhong Li

Plants 2025, 14(21), 3345; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213345 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 759

Abstract

Rape is one of the most widely cultivated and highest-yielding fruit crops in the world. However, research on its precise nutrient diagnosis and fertilization theory is severely lacking, significantly restricting the development of the grape industry. In this study, an L₁₆(4⁵) orthogonal experimental design was applied to determine the effects of varying ratios of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) on the fruit quality of ‘87-1’ grape (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivated in a facility, aiming to optimize nutrient application rates and improve fruit quality. Among the treatments T5 (N2P1K2Ca3Mg4), T14 (N4P2K3Ca1Mg4), and T9 (N3P1K3Ca4Mg2), treatment T9 had the most significant effect on single fruit weight, total soluble solids (TSS) content, fruit firmness (FF), and fruit quality index (FQI) and was conducive to the positive accumulation of the above quality indicators. Based on a comprehensive multi-factor analysis of variance, the optimal fertilization combination for achieving a high FQI was N3P1K2Ca1Mg2, corresponding to application rates of 375.0, 0, 168.8, 0, and 70.5 kg·hm⁻² for N, P₂O₅, K₂O, CaO, and MgO, respectively. Furthermore, to establish standards for multivariate compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and define the nutrient sufficiency range for ‘87-1’ grape fruit cultivated in a facility, the nutrient concentrations in various plant tissues and the soil and the FQI were measured across 80 treatments over five consecutive years. The nutritional status of the grapes cultivated under these treatments was calculated using the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution and the CND method. Based on the optimal nutrient ranges for high FQI sub-populations, a precise fertilization model was developed to facilitate economic fertilizer savings, quality improvement, and standardized grape cultivation in a facility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 1471 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microclimate Modification, Evapotranspiration, Growth and Essential Oil Yield of Six Medicinal Plants Cultivated Beneath a Dynamic Agrivoltaic System in Southern Italy

by Grazia Disciglio, Antonio Stasi, Annalisa Tarantino and Laura Frabboni

Plants 2025, 14(15), 2428; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152428 - 5 Aug 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2821

Abstract

This study, conducted in Southern Italy in 2023, investigated the effects of a dynamic agrivoltaics (AV) system on microclimate, water consumption, plant growth, and essential oil yield in six medicinal species: lavender (Lavandula angustifolia L. ‘Royal purple’), lemmon thyme (Thymus citriodorus (Pers.) Schreb. ar. ‘Aureus’), common thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. ‘Severn seas’), mint (Mentha spicata L. ‘Moroccan’), and sage (Salvia officinalis L. subsp. Officinalis). Due to the rotating solar panels, two distinct ground zones were identified: a consistently shaded area under the panels (UP), and a partially shaded area between the panels (BP). These were compared to an adjacent full-sun control area (T). Microclimate parameters, including solar radiation, air and leaf infrared temperature, and soil temperature, were recorded throughout the cultivation season. Reference evapotranspiration (ET_O) was calculated using Turc’s method, and crop evapotranspiration (ET_C) was estimated with species-specific crop coefficients (K_C). Results showed significantly lower microclimatic values in the UP plot compared to both BP and especially T, resulting in ET_C reductions of 81.1% in UP and 13.1% in BP relative to T, an advantage in water-scarce environments. Growth and yield responses varied among species and treatment plots. Except for mint, all species showed a significant reduction in fresh biomass (40.1% to 48.8%) under the high shading of UP compared to T. However, no biomass reductions were observed in BP. Notably, essential oil yields were higher in both UP and BP plots (0.60–2.63%) compared to the T plot (0.51–1.90%). These findings demonstrate that dynamic AV systems can enhance water use efficiency and essential oil yield, offering promising opportunities for sustainable, high-quality medicinal crop production in arid and semi-arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops: Advances and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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