Search Results (427)

As urban areas are vulnerable to destructive and sometimes lethal fires, modern water supply networks are designed with firefighting in mind. This work tests whether the requirements for higher fire flows are associated with lower fire mortality rates. The work is primarily a review of the relevant international literature with a simple case study. It was found that, despite having some of the world’s most demanding fire flow requirements, the US fire mortality rate (deaths/100,000 people/year) is nearly double (0.91) that of Belgium, New Zealand, Ireland, France, the Netherlands, and Great Britain (<0.47). When it comes to fire flows, many European countries require 20 L/s or less. In contrast, North America has a higher minimum fire flow requirement of 32 L/s that can reach 95 L/s. Additional fire flow in North America appears to provide little benefit to mortality rates, which is a key finding of this work. Fire flow requirements and fire mortality appear to be weakly correlated. Other factors, such as the absence of smoke alarms, smoking, rural residence, poverty, and disability, are likely more important for fire mortality than municipal fire flows, which is another key finding. Providing fire flows that do not reduce mortality comes at a cost. A common fire flow restriction in North America is that pipes must be at least 150 mm in diameter. A simple case study demonstrates that relaxing this requirement reduces network costs and improves water quality. Suggestions are included on how to mitigate these effects for North American networks. Full article

Smallholder dairy farms are central to rural livelihoods in Latin America, yet feeding strategies can shift environmental burdens across climate, land, and water dimensions. This study integrated cluster analysis and life cycle assessment to identify methane-related feeding typologies and assess their environmental trade-offs in smallholder dairy farms in the Mexican highlands. Twenty-nine farms from two dairy regions were classified by k-means clustering into two methane-emission-related farm typologies, which were subsequently characterized by their observed feeding profiles: conserved-forage-dominant (Cluster 1, n = 17) and green-forage-dominant (Cluster 2, n = 12). Their environmental performance was assessed with a cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment following ISO 14040/14044 and ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint across 18 impact categories. Feed production and ration supply were the main hotspots, contributing 72 to 100% of the total impacts. Global warming potential averaged 2.29 and 2.47 kg CO₂-eq per kg of raw milk in Clusters 1 and 2, respectively. Within the study sample, exploratory comparisons indicated higher marine eutrophication and land use in Cluster 1, whereas Cluster 2 showed higher fine particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, terrestrial ecotoxicity, and human carcinogenic toxicity (nominal p < 0.05). These potential trade-offs require validation in larger cohorts and with more geographically representative inventories. These findings show that similar milk outputs can arise from distinct feeding pathways with different environmental trade-offs and that greater reliance on fresh forage does not necessarily imply a more favorable environmental profile. Cluster-based characterization offers a practical basis for improving feed sourcing and ration design in dairy systems facing resource constraints. Full article

The rapid expansion of artificial intelligence (AI) is accelerating data center construction and creating downstream implications for households. This study examines how AI-era data center costs (comprising construction, energy, water, grid upgrades, cooling, and lifecycle management) move through service supply chains and affect household prices in healthcare, transportation, education, banking, and commerce. It also considers the productivity and welfare benefits that AI may transmit. This study identifies four pass-through channels: utility-rate socialization of energy costs, cloud-platform pricing, sectoral pass-through from AI-adopting industries, and indirect effects through supply chains and labor markets. It introduces the AI-inflated net good basket, defined as transmitted cost minus transmitted benefit, to show how AI reshapes the overall net cost of household consumption rather than simply inflating individual prices. The study develops the AI Infrastructure Net Cost Pass-Through Model (AI-NCPM), a four-layer conceptual framework tracing net cost flows from data center investment to sectoral allocation and household outcomes. The model’s parameters are analytically specified but not empirically calibrated; numerical examples are illustrative rather than representing estimated effects. Its main contribution is an integrative framework linking cost pass-through, infrastructure cost socialization, two-sided platform allocation, environmental externalities, and household expenditure incidence within a single net-cost account. Because these effects originate in the design, construction, energy and cooling systems, and lifecycle operation of data centers, the analysis connects AI infrastructure economics to the built environment. The framework suggests that low-income, minority, rural, older adult, and disability-affected households may face disproportionate net burdens, as costs fall heavily on essential services while benefits accrue more readily to affluent and digitally connected households. Full article

This study assessed the performance of a rural water supply system. Performance assessment of water supply systems is important to ensure the long-term sustainability of water services. The study addressed a critical gap in assessing performance while accounting for water disruptions and their effects on water quality in nonlinear rural water supply systems. This is critical, especially in rural areas where reliable access to water is limited. A questionnaire survey was conducted to collect data on the reliability and accessibility of the water supply system. Questionnaire responses were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 25. Spearman’s rank correlation was used to determine the relationship between the socio-economic variables and the performance indicators. and the variables. Turbidity, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and pH were measured in the field. Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total coliforms were analysed using the membrane filtration method. A paired two-tailed t-test was used to determine if there is a significant difference in water quality between the dry and wet seasons. Key performance indicators on reliability and accessibility were assessed by comparing benchmarks. Most households receive an inadequate quantity of water, with 84.3% using less than the recommended basic need of 1500 L per week. Travel distances to the source exceeded the recommended benchmark of 100 m. The majority of respondents (81.4%) reported frequent water supply disruptions, indicating poor reliability of the source. EC and pH were within the South African National Standards (SANS) 241 guideline for drinking water. TDS, turbidity, and microbial parameters failed to meet safe drinking water standards, except for E. coli during the dry season. There was no significant difference in the water quality between the dry and wet seasons. The water supply system demonstrated poor performance. Measures such as implementing low-cost filtration systems to reduce turbidity, raising community awareness about water safety, and decentralising maintenance activities to improve system sustainability due to financial constraints. These interventions will reduce physical burdens and increase effective water usage. Full article

Water scarcity in Chile has been exacerbated by a decline in precipitation and an increase in water demand. This has prompted a search for strategies to increase water supply, whether through aquifer recharge or reservoir construction. In this study, aquifer recharge was evaluated through rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) and direct injection into rural wells in the Ñuble Region. Three wells were selected in the Ñuble Region (Ñiquén, San Carlos, and Coihueco) using hydrogeological and operational criteria. To characterize the hydrogeology of the area, local piezometric data, geophysical surveys using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), and seismoelectric tests were considered. This enabled the identification of aquifers with water levels between 2.6 and 23 m depth across the different geological units of the territory. The hydrological design was based on a frequency analysis of annual precipitation (1991–2020), which yielded design rainfall values between 442 and 694 mm. The implemented RWHS demonstrated injection capacities between 0.9 and 1.4 L·s⁻¹. The results show that rainwater harvesting combined with direct aquifer recharge represents a viable alternative for improving water security, with potential for territorial scaling through regional public policies. Full article

This study presents a technical assessment of solar energy systems for integrated agricultural use and rural electrification. A model village comprising 30 households was considered, and high-resolution hourly load profiles were developed to characterize consumption dynamics, including peak demand and sectoral distribution across residential, agricultural, public, healthcare, and commercial users. A 60 kW photovoltaic (PV) system was designed in conjunction with an independent solar thermal installation for hot water supply. The system configuration was established through component sizing and numerical modeling, incorporating heat transfer mechanisms and operational constraints. Time-dependent simulations performed in MATLAB (R2022b) evaluated PV power output, battery storage cycling, and thermal system performance over a 24-h horizon. A comparative analysis of standalone PV, hybrid PV/T, and decoupled PV–thermal configurations was conducted based on performance and operational criteria. The results indicate that separated electrical and thermal subsystems achieve improved cost-effectiveness, enhanced reliability, and reduced maintenance requirements. The proposed approach demonstrates the technical viability of solar-based energy systems for rural applications, supporting energy autonomy, reduced fossil fuel dependence, and sustainable agricultural development. Full article

We propose a quantitative, spatially explicit framework for assessing local self-sufficiency and resilience within the Water–Energy–Food (WEF) Nexus. The methodology introduces normalized, per capita indicators that quantify the degree of dependence on local versus external resources, explicitly incorporating physical availability, renewability, energy requirements, infrastructure, and land-use constraints. In contrast to conventional composite indices, the proposed framework adopts a non-compensatory structure, whereby deficiencies in one sector cannot be offset by surpluses in another, reflecting the physical constraints of the nexus. Indicator values range from 0 (complete dependence on external resources) to 1 (full local self-sufficiency) and are formulated dynamically, enabling comparison across existing conditions and alternative infrastructural or policy scenarios. The framework is applied as a proof of concept to a small rural settlement in North Euboea, Greece. The results indicate substantial potential for food and renewable energy self-sufficiency under optimized infrastructure configurations, while also revealing critical vulnerabilities associated with groundwater-dependent water supply and seasonal energy imbalances. The analysis further demonstrates how spatial proximity, energy–water coupling, and land-use competition jointly constrain achievable self-sufficiency levels, highlighting trade-offs that are often overlooked in sectoral or purely volumetric assessments. By explicitly linking resource flows with spatial proximity and infrastructural choices, the proposed indicators provide a robust and transparent tool for resilience-oriented planning under conditions of climatic, environmental, and systemic uncertainty. Full article

Background/Objectives: Dengue prevention in rural Amazonian communities is shaped by knowledge, household feasibility, sociocultural dynamics, institutional continuity, and trusted communication. This study explored behavioral, sociocultural, and institutional barriers to dengue prevention and control in rural communities of the Peruvian Amazon. Methods: An exploratory qualitative study with an ethnographic orientation, informed by the Communication for Behavioural Impact (COMBI) framework, was conducted in three anonymized rural settlements in San Martín, Peru. The qualitative corpus included 120 adults, 84 in-depth interviews, six focus group discussions with 36 participants, 22 household and community observation records, 13 institutional communication materials, and seven local operational documents. Data were analyzed using an inductive thematic approach and triangulated across participant profiles, settlements, and sources. Results: Dengue was widely recognized as a mosquito-borne disease, but the central finding was a gap between general awareness and practical, routine application. Participants’ understanding of breeding sites, warning signs, and feasible source reduction was uneven. Prevention was mainly reactive, increasing after nearby cases, alerts, or fumigation, but weakening when risk was not visible. Irregular water supply, water storage, waste accumulation, gendered domestic labor, competing household priorities, reluctance to confront neighbors, and intermittent institutional action limited sustained prevention. Fumigation was perceived as the most visible institutional response, while communication was more credible when mediated by trusted local actors. Conclusions: Dengue prevention requires locally feasible household practices, safe water-storage guidance, trusted communicators, neighborhood coordination, continuous pre-outbreak engagement, and intersectoral support. Full article

Although South Africa has an extensive water infrastructure, it continues to face significant water scarcity due to its semi-arid climate, increasing urbanisation, ageing infrastructure, and pollution. These challenges, coupled with climate change and increasing water demand, have led to inefficiencies across the water value chain, particularly in rural areas. This review paper evaluates the current adoption of predictive analytics in South Africa’s water management system through a systematic literature review. It identifies the current applications, implementation gaps, and key system components that are suitable candidates to enhance efficiency, resource planning, and long-term sustainability in the sector. The findings show that while predictive models are being applied in urban systems for demand forecasting and proactive maintenance, only 15% of the reviewed studies address their actual adoption in rural or under-resourced contexts. This underscores the need for more inclusive development strategies to ensure equitable water service delivery. Although strides have been made in research and innovation, a major barrier is the slow transition from research to operational deployment, which hinders the full realisation of these technologies’ benefits that are essential for water supply sustainability and availability. Full article

Ecological water supply has been integrated into the water supply scope of numerous water diversion projects, yet ecosystem complexity makes ecological benefit assessment difficult. Traditional quantitative methods for water supply benefits mainly focus on economic benefits from productive and domestic water use, ignoring the ecological benefits and real-time benefit changes over the project service period. This study categorizes ecological water supply separately in benefit calculation and considers enhanced ecosystem service value brought by ecological water replenishment. Based on emergy analysis, the water resource values of domestic, productive, and ecological water supply are calculated individually, and a water supply benefits evaluation model is established in combination with corresponding water supply volumes. A dynamic evaluation method for the project service period is further proposed using a Grey Model (1,1). Verified via the Yangtze-to-Huaihe Water Diversion Project (Henan section), results indicate that from 2021 to 2070, comprehensive water supply benefits increase yearly from 5.19 billion yuan to 16.18 billion yuan. Productive water supply provides the largest benefits (67–74%), followed by urban domestic (19–25%), rural domestic (5–7%), and ecological water supply (1–2%). This study constructs a comprehensive, systematic, and dynamic evaluation system, supporting the holistic assessment of the long-term economic and environmental impacts of water diversion projects. Full article

Eucalypt plantations have expanded across tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions and now play an important role in the global supply of wood and renewable biomass, while remaining at the center of debates on water use, biodiversity, and socio-economic trade-offs. This review examines whether these plantations can deliver ecological, social, and technological benefits under appropriate management. This review synthesizes evidence from nearly 200 peer-reviewed papers, technical reports, and books covering environmental services, livelihood outcomes, and emerging bio-based applications of Eucalyptus species. The literature shows that well-planned plantations can deliver clear benefits. High biomass production supports carbon sequestration, while improvements in soil structure, nutrient cycling, and the recovery of degraded lands are frequently reported. Effects on water, often described in general terms as negative, vary widely with climate, soils, stand age, and previous land use, and are documented to play roles in biodrainage, salinity control, erosion reduction, and local microclimate regulation under suitable conditions. From a socio-economic perspective, Eucalyptus, a widely planted species, supports rural development by generating income, strengthening value chains for wood products and bioenergy, and offering smallholders a fast-growing resource. Technological work on materials and bioproducts, including nanocellulose, essential-oil formulations, biochar-based applications, and wood vinegar, further illustrates this versatility. Overall, while outcomes remain site-specific and dependent on governance, the evidence indicates that, under science-based management and careful landscape planning, eucalypt plantations can contribute to climate mitigation, rural livelihoods, and the circular bioeconomy. Full article

Large portions of rural population in South Africa lack access to basic water and sanitation. This advocates for urgent interventions in support of water supply. This study assessed the performance of solar-powered groundwater pumping systems established at nine pilot sites in rural areas of Greater Giyani Municipality (Limpopo, South Africa). Performance assessment indicators, namely weather, groundwater abstraction, power supply, water supply, water quality, number of beneficiaries and farm productivity, were monitored (2023–2024). Increased groundwater abstraction reduced groundwater levels by 0.4–11 m, depending on the monitored borehole. This was replenished by above-average rainfall in 2023 (≈650 mm). Power supply and pump discharge rates were stable with generally low fluctuations at recommended pumping rates (0.5–2.0 L s⁻¹). Groundwater quality was generally fit to marginal for irrigation and drinking. High levels of NO₃⁻ and total organic carbon, especially in the proximity of villages, mandated the installation of mini water treatment plants for drinking water. The implementation of solar-powered groundwater pumping schemes was generally successful, with more than 5000 villagers benefiting directly from the interventions, whilst smallholder farms turned into commercial and financially viable enterprises. Long-term monitoring of bio-physical and socio-economic drivers is essential to ensure long-term sustainability of the solar-powered groundwater pumping systems. Full article

Food security forms a vital foundation of national security. As core elements in food production, water and land resources play an irreplaceable role in ensuring the food supply. This study analyzes the water and land resources demand for food consumption by residents in nine Yellow River provinces from 2000 to 2023. We define the Baseline (S1), Dietary guideline (S2), Policy-oriented (S3), and Projection (S4) dietary structures and assess future resource gaps under these diets and propose optimized allocation. The results show that both urban and rural diets have shifted from predominantly plant-based to more diverse patterns. From 2000 to 2023, the cropland needed for plant-based foods decreased by 29.87%, while that for animal-source foods increased by 132.84%. The green water and blue water footprints of food consumption rose by 1.46 billion m³ and 17.73 billion m³, respectively. Considering potential land availability, by 2030, cropland requirements under dietary scenarios S2 and S3 can largely be met. The production water footprint gaps for S1, S2, S3, and S4 are 106.30, 29.73, 32.60, and 140.87 billion m³, respectively. S2 and S3 better support coordinated development of dietary needs and water–land resources, while S4 aligns more with rising demand for animal-based foods. Full article

This study evaluated the occurrence, spatial distribution, and associated human health risks of trace metals in water intended for human consumption from urban and rural areas of Satu Mare County (northwestern Romania) based on monitoring data collected between 2022 and 2024. A total of 271 samples from 122 localities were analyzed for As, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Se using high-resolution continuum source graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (HR-CS GFAAS). Spatial analysis, non-parametric statistics, Spearman correlation, and principal component analysis (PCA) were applied to identify distribution patterns and differences between supply systems. Arsenic was identified as the main contaminant of concern, with concentrations reaching 320.5 µg/L, primarily in rural groundwater sources. Most other metals remained below regulatory limits, and elevated concentrations were spatially localized rather than widespread. Non-carcinogenic risk (HRI > 1) was observed in 5.74% of samples, while arsenic-related carcinogenic risk (ILCR > 10⁻⁶) occurred in a limited number of locations in 2024, with no values exceeding 10⁻⁴. Risk estimates were based on total arsenic concentrations and should be interpreted conservatively due to the lack of speciation. No statistically significant differences between urban and rural areas were observed for most metals, except for manganese. Multivariate analysis revealed distinct geochemical behaviors, with a Pb–Ni–Se–Cd cluster in rural samples, while arsenic and manganese showed more independent patterns consistent with redox-controlled processes. Urban samples showed more coherent patterns and higher variance explained by PCA (78.9%) compared to rural datasets (60.1%). Risk estimates were based on total arsenic concentrations and should be interpreted conservatively. The findings highlight the vulnerability of decentralized groundwater systems and support targeted monitoring strategies in line with Directive (EU) 2020/2184. Full article

This study examines the spatio-temporal evolution and restricting mechanisms of agricultural supply chain resilience in the Yangtze River Basin from a gradient perspective. An evaluation index system encompassing the dimensions of the supply side, demand side, circulation side, and support side was developed. The Entropy-Weighted TOPSIS method, kernel density estimation, and obstacle degree model were comprehensively applied to measure and dynamically analyze supply chain resilience across 11 provinces from 2013 to 2023. The findings reveal distinct spatio-temporal evolution patterns: while the overall resilience shows an upward trend, significant gradient disparities exist, with downstream areas exhibiting markedly higher resilience than the mid- and upstream regions. Regarding the restricting mechanisms, the circulation and support sides exhibit higher levels of obstacles, representing key constraints to resilience enhancement. Among these, express delivery volume, freight turnover, and local R&D personnel full-time equivalents are the core obstacle factors affecting resilience. Based on these findings, this study proposes targeted recommendations, including optimizing rural last-mile logistics, upgrading inter-provincial freight hubs, improving rail–water intermodal transport, and strengthening cold-chain infrastructure, as well as implementing differentiated regional strategies and establishing cross-regional coordination mechanisms. These recommendations aim to provide decision-making guidance for enhancing the risk-response capabilities of agricultural supply chains in the Yangtze River Basin and to promote balanced regional development. Full article