Search Results (193)

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is one of the most toxic mycotoxins contaminating animal feed, and bentonite clays are widely used as adsorbents to reduce its bioavailability. This study introduces and characterizes a new, previously unexplored bentonite deposit from Bijelo Polje (Bar, Montenegro), with ~55% montmorillonite in the raw material. Size fractions (<0.200 mm, <0.037 mm, <0.005 mm) were obtained by sieving and centrifugation and characterized by laser diffraction, chemical composition, BET, CEC, and quantitative XRD (Rietveld). In vitro AFB1 adsorption (2–50 ppm, pH 3.0, 0.02% w/v adsorbent) simulated monogastric gastrointestinal conditions. Progressive size reduction increased smectite content (from ~55% to 91%), CEC (44–70 meq/100 g), purity, and BET specific surface area (26.5–50.8 m²/g), while reducing impurities and heavy metals to undetectable levels. The finest fraction (<0.005 mm) achieved the highest maximum adsorption capacity (q_max ≈ 240 mg/g), attributed to enhanced surface homogeneity and site accessibility, significantly outperforming coarser fractions and most unmodified natural bentonites. Only the <0.005 mm fraction fully complies with EU regulatory requirements (Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1060/2013) for AFB1-binding feed additives (≥70% dioctahedral smectite, >90% binding, low quartz/calcite). These results demonstrate that simple mechanical fractionation can yield exceptional performance in a novel natural raw material, offering a cost-effective, sustainable alternative to chemical modification for mycotoxin mitigation. Full article

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a secondary metabolite produced by Fusarium species, exhibiting strong toxicity and classified as a Group 2B carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. It poses a significant threat to both human and animal health. Therefore, developing a simple and reliable method for FB1 detection and analysis is imperative. In this study, a biosensor based on nucleic acid aptamers was developed, utilizing plasma-modified graphene oxide (mGO) as a fluorescence quencher for FB1 detection. This system leverages the interaction between mGO and FAM-APT (a nucleic acid aptamer labeled with 5-carboxyfluorescein, FAM), achieving fluorescence quenching through fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) under excitation at 490 nm and emission at 520 nm. In the presence of FB1, FAM-APT specifically binds to FB1 and dissociates from the mGO surface, resulting in fluorescence recovery. Quantitative detection of FB1 was achieved by measuring the differential fluorescence intensity. The biosensor demonstrated excellent linearity over a concentration range of 10 to 5 × 10⁶ ng/L, with a detection limit (LOD) as low as 0.16 μg/L. Additionally, the sensor exhibited high specificity for FB1 among six common mycotoxins. In practical sample analysis, recovery rates ranged from 95.8% to 104.7% in corn samples and from 89.3% to 94.5% in rice samples. This aptamer-based biosensor features a simple structure, high sensitivity, and a wide detection range, providing important technical support for advancing mycotoxin research. Full article

Electrochemical biosensors have emerged as indispensable detection tools with rapid advancements in recent years, offering high sensitivity, specificity, and cost-effectiveness for quantifying diverse analytes, including amino acids, proteins, pathogens, cells, antigens, and organic/inorganic compounds, thereby advancing analytical detection technologies across multiple fields. Aptamers, synthetic in vitro-evolved ligands with exceptional binding affinity and stability, serve as superior biorecognition elements for electrochemical sensing interfaces. Compared with other bioreceptors such as antibodies, they are generally easier and faster to produce, more uniform between batches, and easier to modify chemically; they also maintain greater stability than protein antibodies or enzymes across varying pH, temperature, and ionic conditions, enabling targeted recognition and measurable signal transduction. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in electrochemical aptasensors across three core domains: biomedical diagnostics (covering tumor markers, infectious disease pathogens, cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers), food safety monitoring (targeting antibiotics, mycotoxins, foodborne pathogens, and pesticide residues), and environmental hazard detection (including heavy metals, toxic compounds, and biotoxins). Key technological innovations such as nanomaterial modification, signal amplification strategies, and novel sensor architectures are highlighted. Additionally, it critically discusses prominent challenges, including complex matrix interference, limited aptamer repertoires, poor reproducibility, and lack of standardization, along with future prospects. This work aims to provide a comprehensive reference for the rational design, optimization, and clinical/field application of next-generation electrochemical aptasensing technologies. Full article

Patulin (PAT) is a fatal mycotoxin that exerts serious threats to human and animal health. Biodegradation of PAT is considered to be one of the promising ways for controlling its contamination. In this study, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 6076 (LP 6076) with reliable removal efficiency on PAT was screened out from three lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains. It was found that the PAT was eliminated through degradation by LP 6076, and the intracellular proteins played a crucial role in PAT degradation with the induction of PAT. The proteomic analysis showed that the response of LP 6076 to PAT was by a concerted effort to repair DNA damage, in parallel to adaptive changes in cell wall biosynthesis and central metabolism. Eleven differentially expressed proteins with high fold changes were picked out and identified as PAT degradation candidate enzymes. The 3D structures of the candidate enzymes were predicted, and molecular docking between the enzymes and PAT was performed. Five enzymes, including Acetoin utilization AcuB protein (AU), GHKL domain-containing protein (GHLK), Dihydroneopterin aldolase (DA), YdeI/OmpD-associated family protein (YDEL), and Transcription regulator protein (TR), could dock with PAT with lower affinity and shorter distance. Through molecular docking analysis, DA was ultimately identified as a potential key degrading enzyme. The choice of DA was substantiated by its superior combination of strong binding affinity and a productive binding pose with PAT. VAL84 and GLN51 residues of DA were likely the active sites, forming four hydrogen bonds with PAT. Our study could accelerate the commercial application of biodegradation toward PAT decontamination. Full article

Aspergillus flavus colonizes oil-seed crops, contaminating them with aflatoxins; highly carcinogenic mycotoxins that cause severe health and economic losses. Genetic studies may reveal new targets for effective control strategies. Here, we characterized a putative WOPR transcription factor gene, osaA, in A. flavus. Our results revealed that osaA regulates conidiation and sclerotial formation. Importantly, deletion of osaA reduces aflatoxin B₁ production, while, unexpectedly, transcriptome analysis indicated upregulation of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes, suggesting post-transcriptional or cofactor-mediated regulation. Cyclopiazonic acid production also decreased in the absence of osaA. In addition, the osaA mutant exhibited upregulation of genes in the imizoquin and aspirochlorine clusters. Moreover, osaA is indispensable for normal seed colonization; deletion of osaA significantly reduced fungal burden in corn kernels. Aflatoxin content in seeds also decreased in the absence of osaA. Furthermore, deletion of osaA caused a reduction in cell-wall chitin content, as well as alterations in oxidative stress sensitivity, which could in part contribute to the observed reduction in pathogenicity. Additionally, promoter analysis of osaA-dependent genes indicated potential interactions with stress-responsive regulators, indicated by an enrichment in Sko1 and Cst6 binding motifs. Understanding the osaA regulatory scope provides insight into fungal biology and identifies potential targets for controlling aflatoxin contamination and pathogenicity. Full article

α-Zearalenol (α-ZOL), the primary metabolite of zearalenone (ZEN), is a prevalent mycotoxin in agricultural products (e.g., corn, wheat) and poses health risks due to its toxicity. However, strategies to mitigate its toxicity are needed. Therefore, this study aims to determine whether selected polyphenols (quercetin, baicalin, rosmarinic acid, naringenin) can competitively displace α-ZOL from human serum albumin (HSA) and to clarify the interaction mechanisms. The results showed that competitive interactions between α-ZOL, HSA, and the polyphenols were observed. The polyphenols bound HSA more tightly than α-ZOL (higher K_a) and significantly reduced α-ZOL’s K_a, indicating direct competition. Moreover, as evidenced by synchronous fluorescence, the polyphenols altered the microenvironments of tyrosine and tryptophan residues, directly impacting α-ZOL binding. The HPLC-ultrafiltration results revealed that the polyphenols tested competitively displaced α-ZOL from HSA, with the relative potency of quercetin ≈ baicalin > rosmarinic acid > naringenin. Collectively, our competitive binding assays demonstrate that quercetin, baicalin, rosmarinic acid, and naringenin competitively displace α-ZOL from its binding site(s) on HSA. Thus, our study not only suggests a novel mechanism to alleviate the toxicity of ZEN and α-ZOL but also provides a scientific basis for developing dietary interventions against these mycotoxins. Full article

The global food supply is increasingly challenged by toxicologically relevant natural and synthetic chemicals, including mycotoxins, pesticides, heavy metals, and migrants from food packaging. Conventional physical and chemical detoxification approaches can reduce contaminant loads but may compromise nutritional and sensory quality or leave residues, motivating a shift toward biological strategies. This review synthesizes current evidence on Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii, a clinically established probiotic yeast, as a multifaceted biological detoxification agent in foods. We outline its dual modes of action: (i) rapid, reversible adsorption of contaminants mediated by the architecture of the yeast cell wall (β glucans, mannans, chitin), and (ii) active biotransformation through secreted proteins and enzymes. S. cerevisiae var. boulardii has been reported to remove up to 96.9% of aflatoxin M₁ in reconstituted milk, depending on strain, dose, contact time, pH, and matrix effects. We collate findings for other contaminant classes and highlight practical variables that govern efficacy, while comparing detoxification performance with bacterial probiotics and conventional methods. Critical knowledge gaps were highlighted, including standardized testing protocols, mechanistic resolution of adsorption versus degradation, stability and regeneration of binding capacity, sensory impacts, with scale up and regulatory pathways. A roadmap is proposed to harmonize methods and unlock the full potential of this promising biotherapeutic yeast for food safety applications. Full article

Deoxynivalenol (DON, commonly known as vomitoxin) is one of the most prevalent mycotoxins contaminating feed in China, posing a serious threat to the health of piglets. Beyond intestinal damage, the liver is a key target organ for the systemic toxicity of DON, but its hepatotoxic molecular mechanisms, particularly the changes at the proteome level, remain unclear. To investigate the protein regulatory network of DON-induced liver injury in piglets, this study systematically analyzed differential expression in the liver proteome using quantitative proteomic techniques. Proteomic analysis identified 5851 proteins in total, among which 88 were differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), including 39 upregulated and 49 downregulated proteins. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that these DEPs were significantly enriched in pathways such as DNA damage repair, RNA metabolism, ribosome biogenesis, and cysteine metabolism. Suppressed expression of key proteins like Replication Factor C Subunit 4 (RFC4) and Exosome Component 9 (EXOSC9) indicated that DON exposure severely disrupted the maintenance of genomic stability and RNA processing capacity in hepatocytes. Conversely, the activation of Nucleic Acid Binding Protein 1 (NABP1) might represent a compensatory DNA protection response. Furthermore, the upregulation of Lactate Dehydrogenase B (LDHB) suggested that DON might influence epigenetic modifications by regulating lactate metabolism. This study reveals, for the first time from a proteomic perspective, a novel mechanism by which DON induces hepatotoxicity in piglets by disrupting DNA repair and RNA metabolic homeostasis, providing an important theoretical basis and data support for elucidating the toxicological effects of DON and improving feed biosafety control strategies. Full article

Ensuring food safety and quality has become increasingly critical due to the complexities introduced by globalization, industrialization, and extended supply chains. Traditional analytical methods for food quality control, such as chromatography and mass spectrometry, while accurate, face limitations including high costs, lengthy analysis times, and limited suitability for on-site rapid monitoring. Electrochemical sensors integrated with molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have emerged as promising alternatives, combining high selectivity and sensitivity with portability and affordability. MIPs, often termed ‘plastic antibodies,’ are synthetic receptors capable of selective molecular recognition, tailored specifically for target analytes. This review comprehensively discusses recent advancements in MIP-based electrochemical sensing platforms, highlighting their applications in detecting various food quality markers. It particularly emphasizes the detection of antioxidants—both natural (e.g., vitamins, phenolics) and synthetic (e.g., BHA, TBHQ), artificial sweeteners (e.g., aspartame, acesulfame-K), colorants (e.g., azo dyes, anthocyanins), traditional contaminants (e.g., pesticides, heavy metals), and toxicants such as mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxins). The synthesis methods, including bulk, precipitation, surface imprinting, sol–gel polymerization, and electropolymerization (EP), are critically evaluated for their effectiveness in creating highly selective binding sites. Furthermore, the integration of advanced nanomaterials, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, and metallic nanoparticles, into these platforms to enhance sensitivity, selectivity, and stability is examined. Practical challenges, including sensor reusability, regeneration strategies, and adaptability to complex food matrices, are addressed. Finally, the review provides an outlook on future developments and practical considerations necessary to transition these innovative MIP electrochemical sensors from laboratory research to widespread adoption in industry and regulatory settings, ultimately ensuring comprehensive food safety and consumer protection. Full article

Aptamer-based biosensors have emerged as an important and promising technology for applications in food safety, environmental monitoring, and pharmaceutical analysis. Obtained via Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) screening, these recognition elements exhibit antibody-comparable affinity and specificity, alongside superior chemical stability, easy synthesis, and broad target adaptability. Substantial advances in the field have been marked by the systematic development of food contaminant-specific aptamers, elucidation of their binding mechanisms, and construction of versatile biosensing platforms. The integration of these aptamers with conventional electrochemical and optical sensors has substantially enhanced detection sensitivity and lowered detection limits, particularly for trace-level analytes in complex food matrices. Furthermore, the integration of aptamer technology with novel nanomaterials has facilitated the development of high-performance detection platforms for a wide range of food contaminants, including heavy metals, antibiotics, foodborne pathogens, mycotoxins, pesticides, and food additives. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in SELEX techniques for aptamer screening, highlights the application of aptamer-based biosensors in detecting these contaminants, and discusses current challenges and future prospects in the field of food safety, which establishes a comprehensive framework to advance aptamer-based biosensing technologies for rapid detection and early warning in food safety monitoring. Full article

During the grain and cereal production process, whether during harvesting, processing, or storage, errors can occur, compromising product quality and potentially leading to contamination by fungi, which produce toxic substances known as mycotoxins. When fed to animals, these contaminated grains and cereals can cause several negative effects on animal health, impacting their production performance, including immunosuppression, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and reproductive problems. To minimize the problems caused by mycotoxins, anti-mycotoxin additives, also known as adsorbents, are used. These are inert materials that bind to mycotoxins and are excreted in feces, preventing their action within the animal’s body. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an anti-mycotoxin product based on bentonite, activated charcoal, milk thistle extract, and yeast cell wall in the diet of mycotoxin-contaminated lambs on animal health and performance. Thirty lambs were divided into three homogeneous groups: control (without mycotoxins or additives), mycotoxin (with mycotoxins), and anti-mycotoxin (mycotoxins and additive). The mycotoxins used for feed contamination were aflatoxin (AFLA) (200 ppb), fumonisin (FUMO) (15 ppm), zearalenone (ZEA) (500 ppb), and deoxynivalenol (DON) (1.5 ppm). The anti-mycotoxin additive was used at a dose of 1 kg/ton of concentrate. Parameters of zootechnical performance, hematological profile, serum biochemistry, and oxidative status were evaluated. The group that ingested the contaminated concentrate with mycotoxin had a lower average daily weight gain (ADG) when compared to the control and anti-mycotoxin groups. Ingestion of a mycotoxin-contaminated diet increased the activity of aspartate aminotransferase and gamma-glutamyltransferase, which are indicators of liver damage. However, when the anti-mycotoxin additive was used, the increase in these enzymes was modest and lower than in the mycotoxin group. Ingestion of a mycotoxin-containing concentrate increased levels of oxidative stress biomarkers such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and reduced glutathione (GST), demonstrating that the mycotoxin challenge was effective in causing oxidative stress. However, when the diet was contaminated with mycotoxins and supplemented with the anti-mycotoxin additive, the levels of ROS and TBARS were similar to those of the negative control group. We concluded that adding the anti-mycotoxin product to the lambs’ diets prevented or minimized the problems caused by mycotoxin consumption, allowing these lambs to have ADG, and feed efficiency similar to the control group. Full article

Despite the substantial human health risks posed by ochratoxin A (OTA), a potent mycotoxin, simple, low-cost methods for its sensitive and selective detection in foods are lacking. To address this gap, we herein developed a label-free OTA aptasensor based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-scaffolded silver nanoclusters (AgNCs) with an intense red fluorescence. As the DNA template fragment used for AgNC fabrication was derived from the complementary sequence of the OTA aptamer (Apt-OTA), Apt-OTA complexed the AgNCs in the absence of OTA, quenching their fluorescence. OTA inhibited this quenching by strongly binding Apt-OTA and thus precluding its binding to the AgNCs. The OTA aptasensor exhibited a high selectivity and low detection limit (0.38 ng/mL), eliminating the need for expensive reagents, complicated pre-treatments, and advanced equipment, and was successfully used to quantify mycotoxins in food under real-life conditions, thus holding promise for mycotoxin control. Full article

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum, primarily contaminating wheat, corn, and their derivatives. Although less toxic than some other mycotoxins, DON is significant due to its abundance, particularly in wheat, and its resistance to in vitro detoxification. Compared to other livestock, pigs are the most susceptible animals to DON’s presence due to its interaction with wheat-heavy diets. The best way to attenuate the effects of DON is to prevent its presence on cultivated land; however, given that it is difficult to prevent the occurrence of DON in freshly harvested cereals completely, other strategies must be applied. For pigs, chronic consumption of feed with DON concentrations below even the regulated limits can still negatively impact growth. Thus, DON-detoxifying agents including antidotes, DON binding agents, and exogenous in vivo enzyme additives, have been added to feed in an attempt to detoxify DON. This comprehensive review highlights the most recently developed DON-detoxification techniques and assesses each treatment’s viability and efficacy, with an emphasis on chemical and biochemical techniques and the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. Herein we explore the unmet needs and future directions of current technologies while discussing promising strategies that can advance the DON-detoxification field. Full article

After in vitro mycotoxin binding validation, humate and β-mannanase were tested for mitigating the negative effects of aflatoxin B₁ and deoxynivalenol. Gilts at 8.7 ± 0.5 kg body weight were allotted to four treatments: NC (uncontaminated diet); PC (contaminated diet: 150 µg aflatoxin B₁ and 1100 µg deoxynivalenol per kg feed); HT (PC + humate, 0.5%); and EM (PC + β-mannanase, 800 U/kg diet). Growth performance was recorded for 42 days, and blood and tissue samples were collected for hematological and histopathological evaluations. The PC reduced (p < 0.05) serum tumor necrosis factor-α at day 28 and tended to increase (p = 0.062) immunoglobulin G (IgG), whereas the EM reduced IgG (p < 0.05) at day 42. The PC increased (p < 0.05) mean corpuscular hemoglobin and volume, which were reduced (p < 0.05) by HT or EM at day 42. The PC increased (p < 0.05) bile duct hyperplasia, which was attenuated (p < 0.05) by HT or EM. The PC reduced (p < 0.05) gain- to-feed ratio for the overall period, whereas HT increased (p < 0.05) average daily gain on days 21 to 28. These results suggest that HT and EM may mitigate mycotoxin-induced immune and hepatic damage in pigs through adsorbing mycotoxins. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination in agricultural products poses severe global health risks, with ochratoxins (particularly OTA and OTB) exhibiting marked nephrotoxicity and classified as Group 2B carcinogens by IARC. Conventional physical/chemical detoxification methods often impair food nutritional quality, highlighting the need for enzymatic alternatives. Herein, we systematically investigated the degradation mechanisms of ochratoxin A (OTA) and ochratoxin B (OTB) using Pleurotus ostreatus dye-decolorizing peroxidase (PoDyP4) coupled with redox mediators. Remarkably, hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) enhanced degradation efficiency 26.7-fold for OTA and 10.6-fold for OTB compared to mediator-free systems, establishing it as the optimal catalytic enhancer. Through LC-MS/MS analysis, we identified five key degradation products, including 6-OH-OTA and OTB-quinone, elucidating a putative oxidative degradation pathway. In vitro cytotoxicological evaluation in HK-2 cells demonstrated that PoDyP4-treated ochratoxins significantly attenuated cytotoxicity, reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) levels by 48.7% (OTA) and 42.3% (OTB) (p < 0.01) and suppressing ROS generation. Molecular docking revealed strong binding affinities between PoDyP4 and ochratoxins, with calculated binding energies of −7.6 kcal/mol (OTA) and −8.6 kcal/mol (OTB), stabilized by hydrogen bond networks (1.9–3.4 Å). These findings position PoDyP4 as a promising biocatalyst for mycotoxin mitigation in food systems, offering a sustainable alternative to traditional detoxification methods. Full article