Search Results (2,132)

The mixed application of plant residues to treat petroleum-contaminated soil may increase remediation efficiency by leveraging their mixed decomposition effects. However, it remains unclear whether this approach may also lead to opposite effects. In this study, plant residues of 7 common plant species, namely, Bothriochloa ischaemum (Bi), Lespedeza davurica (Ld), Artemisia gmelinii (Ag), Heteropappus altaicus (Ha), Artemisia annua (Aa), Sophora davidii (Sd), and Agropyron cristatum (Ac), from the petroleum-producing area of northern Shaanxi and their 9 mixtures were used to treat petroleum-contaminated soil with a crude oil content of 15.00 g kg⁻¹. The samples were incubated at 25 °C under constant humidity for 120 days to determine the potential effects of mixed plant residues on stimulating contaminant degradation and restoring soil biological and chemical properties. The results revealed that (1) among all mixed plant residue treatments, combinations of BiLdAg, LdSd and HaAa significantly weakened the overall contaminant degradation efficiency. In particular, the LdSd and HaAa mixtures simultaneously strongly inhibited the degradation of saturated hydrocarbons and aromatic hydrocarbons; compared with the expected theoretical values, their degradation rates decreased by 12.36–35.25% and 9.91–19.82%, respectively (p < 0.05). (2) Mixtures including LdAgHa, BiLdAg, LdSd, LdAgHaAa, LdHa and HaAgAcSd significantly impaired the capacity of plant residues to replenish soil available nutrients and activate soil enzyme activities. The LdAgHa mixture exhibited the strongest antagonistic effect: its improvement efficiency in terms of soil nitrate nitrogen content and sucrase, dehydrogenase and polyphenol oxidase activities (the increase relative to that in contaminated soil) decreased by 30.60–76.89% relative to the theoretical expectations (p < 0.05). Overall, the effects of mixed plant residue addition on contaminant degradation and the restoration of damaged soil biochemical properties were negatively correlated. (3) Increased chemical specialization of mixed residues and higher mass proportions of Ld and Bi residues in mixtures tended to aggravate the above antagonistic inhibitory effects. When all the remediation indicators were comprehensively evaluated, the mixed application of plant residues failed to universally improve the remediation performance of crude oil-contaminated soil. Under experimental conditions, BiLdAg and LdSd residue combinations may lead to remarkable antagonistic interactions and lower the efficiency of necrophytoremediation, which should be avoided in practical field applications of this remediation technology. Full article

Long-term cultivation of strawberries can alter plant-associated microbial communities; however, the responses of root-associated bacteria within the combined rhizoplane and endophytic community remain insufficiently characterized. This study compared bacterial community composition, co-occurrence patterns, and predicted ecological functions in root-associated bacteria from short-term (4 months; 4 mon) and long-term (16 months; 16 mon) cultivation of Dandong 99 strawberry plants. Because the two groups differed simultaneously in soil cultivation history, plant age, and root developmental stage, all observed differences are interpreted as correlates of cultivation duration rather than as effects of continuous cropping per season. The 6 composite root samples were analyzed using Illumina NovaSeq sequencing of the bacterial 16S rRNA V4 region, followed by ASV-based diversity analysis, taxonomic profiling, LEfSe, FastSpar-based co-occurrence network analysis, and FAPROTAX functional prediction. Across all samples, 264,350 high-quality sequences and 11,442 ASVs were obtained. Long-term cultivation was associated with lower observed ASV richness and a marked shift in community composition (PERMANOVA R² = 0.935; ANOSIM R = 1). At the phylum level, Actinobacteria declined significantly (30.50% to 12.85%), while Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota were enriched. At the genus level, Streptomyces, Steroidobacter, Bradyrhizobium, and unidentified Rhizobiaceae decreased significantly. Network analysis identified Sphingobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Steroidobacter as highly connected genera by degree centrality, with the latter two also showing reduced relative abundance. Functional prediction indicated significantly lower predicted chemoheterotrophy, aerobic chemoheterotrophy, nitrogen fixation, nitrate reduction, and chitinolysis, alongside higher predicted methylotrophy, methanol oxidation, ureolysis, and aromatic compound degradation. These findings provide genus-level evidence that cultivation duration is associated with compositional and predicted functional shifts in strawberry root-associated bacteria. The depleted Actinobacteria and Bradyrhizobium partially align with microbial signatures of continuous cropping obstacles, warranting future validation in age-controlled, temporally replicated studies. Full article

Conventional ridge tillage has triggered severe soil organic carbon depletion and soil erosion in sloping maize fields of humid northeast China, posing a persistent threat to black soil health and regional grain security. As representative conservation tillage systems integrated with full straw residue retention, no tillage and strip tillage exhibit prominent potential in soil protection, and their soil-improving benefits are inseparable from continuous straw carbon input; however, their regulatory effects on humus fractions and humic acid molecular properties in erosion-prone sloping farmlands remain largely unclarified. This study aimed to screen the optimal integrated tillage–cultivation mode for sloping farmlands in the northeast China black soil region and to reveal how tillage systems coupled with incremental agronomic practices affect maize yield, humus composition, and humic acid molecular characteristics in Albic soil, a representative degraded soil type of the regional black soil system. A 2-year field experiment was conducted in a typical sloping farmland of Jilin Province, with conventional ridge tillage set as the control. Five incremental integrated management practices (from baseline practice to fertilizer reduction, straw decomposition promotion, and 5–10% higher planting density) were arranged under both under no-tillage and strip-tillage systems. We analyzed dissolved organic matter fluorescence properties, carbon content of humus fractions, and humic acid molecular structural features, and performed principal component analysis for comprehensive performance evaluation of all treatments. This study demonstrates that optimized strip tillage, supported by full straw C input as an indispensable prerequisite, combined with straw decomposition promotion and a 10% planting density increase can synchronously boost soil fertility and maize yield, providing a scientific and practical tillage strategy for sustainable black soil conservation of sloping Albic farmlands in humid northeast China. Strip tillage achieved a 6.78% higher average maize yield than NT, and the maximum yield was recorded with ST5 (strip tillage combined with straw decomposition promotion and 10% planting density increase). Both no tillage and strip tillage significantly increased C_DOM content, humification index and autochthonous contribution, optimized humus component distribution with elevated humic acid carbon content, humic acid carbon-to-fulvic acid carbon ratio and humic acid carbon-to-total organic carbon ratio, and enhanced humic acid aromaticity, thermal stability, and hydrophobicity. The principal component analysis results indicated that ST5 ranked first in comprehensive performance, while conventional ridge tillage ranked the lowest among all treatments. Strip tillage integrated with straw decomposition promotion and 10% increased planting density effectively modulated humus fractions, improved humic acid molecular stability, and synchronously increased maize yield. This integrated management regime provides a scientific and practical tillage strategy for sustainable black soil conservation and high-efficiency maize production in sloping Albic farmlands of humid northeast China. Full article

Urban fragmentation represents one of the major challenges affecting post-socialist residential neighborhoods, generating underutilized spaces characterized by ecological degradation and reduced spatial cohesion. This study investigates the potential of ornamental and aromatic plants to support the regeneration of apartment courtyard spaces and their integration into urban green infrastructure systems through the evaluation of a proposed landscape design scenario. A comparative approach was employed, combining Space Syntax analysis, expert-based ecological assessment, and perceptual–visual evaluation to compare the existing site conditions with the proposed landscape design scenario in a post-socialist residential neighborhood in Craiova, Romania. Spatial configuration was assessed using the indicators of integration, connectivity, and mean depth, while ecological and perceptual performance were evaluated through biodiversity-related indicators and the Scenic Beauty Estimation (SBE) method based on expert assessments. The proposed intervention, founded on a stratified composition of ornamental and aromatic vegetation, reduced impervious surfaces and was associated with improvements in spatial permeability, biodiversity potential, and the visual quality of the landscape. Space Syntax analysis indicated an increase in configurational performance (ΔC ≈ +41.6%), while perceptual evaluation showed higher mean expert ratings for aesthetic, functional, and sustainability attributes in the proposed design scenario compared with the existing conditions. These findings suggest that, within the limits of this case study and the applied evaluation framework, small-scale green interventions based on ornamental and aromatic plants may contribute to improving the ecological and spatial performance of fragmented urban spaces and provide a methodological framework for assessing similar regeneration projects in post-socialist residential contexts. Full article

Common basil is a plant with high environmental requirements and is of great importance both in amateur and large-scale cultivation. One method of obtaining fresh basil is container cultivation. The study aimed to determine the feasibility of growing Greek basil in autumn under temperate climate conditions in containers with diameters of 9, 10, and 11 cm, under cover (polytunnel and unheated greenhouse), as well as in the risky field cultivation due to the risk of frost. The highest yield (23.8 g·plant⁻¹) was obtained in greenhouse cultivation in the smallest containers. The plants growing in the greenhouse were characterized by the highest content of chlorophyll a (72.77 mg·100 g⁻¹ FW), chlorophyll a + b (105.1 mg·100 g⁻¹ FW), and carotenoids (20.87 mg·100 g⁻¹ FW). Fifty-three compounds of basil essential oil were identified and characterized, with growth conditions (location/pot) modifying its chemical composition. The highest essential oil content (0.30%) was found in plants grown in the greenhouse in the largest pots. Methyl eugenol (35.96–69.85%) and eugenol (7.29–28.12%) dominated in the tested essential oil, followed by linalool (1.90–9.77%), α-trans-bergamotene (3.78–7.20%), (E)-β-farnesene (2.39–3.74%), and 1,8-cineole (1.49–5.22%). The conducted studies confirm the possibility of harvesting aromatic basil raw material rich in biocomponents from autumn cultivation in containers in the field and under cover. Full article

Kiwifruit wine is valued for its nutrients and health benefits, but conventional brewing often results in a weak aroma due to precursor insufficiency and oxidative losses during fermentation. Therefore, adding natural polysaccharides with antioxidant and metabolic regulatory properties prior to fermentation may be a promising quality improvement strategy. Bletilla striata polysaccharide (BSP), a plant polysaccharide with multiple bioactivities, may have the potential to regulate kiwifruit wine quality. This study explored the regulatory effects of 100–400 mg/L BSP on the physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and aroma compounds of kiwifruit wine, which suggested its possible mechanism of action at the metabolite level. The results showed that the 300 mg/L BSP treatment achieved the best overall quality, maximizing the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging rates and increasing the total relative abundance of volatile compound concentration by 28.69% compared with the control. Electronic nose testing, odor activity value analysis, and sensory evaluation all indicated that the 300 mg/L BSP group exhibited the best overall aroma profile, and non-targeted metabolomics further suggested that the 300 mg/L BSP addition was associated with the depletion of quinic acid, the accumulation of aromatic amino and succinic acids, and changes in lipid-related metabolites, which were correlated with enhanced aroma production. In conclusion, exogenous BSP addition appears to improve kiwifruit wine quality, and this study provides a theoretical basis for its application in fruit wine brewing. Full article

Supplemental light spectrum strongly influences crop physiology, quality, and marketability in controlled-environment horticulture. This study evaluated greenhouse-grown basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) under natural daylight supplemented with 250 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ of multi-band WHITE or narrow-band RED, GREEN, and BLUE LEDs, compared with non-supplemented controls (CNT). Diurnal gas exchange, cumulative photosynthetic activity, quality, sensory traits, and productive responses were assessed to identify spectrum-specific effects. WHITE supplementation produced the highest net photosynthesis (P_n) throughout the photoperiod, increasing carbon assimilation by up to 90% during active supplementation compared with CNT, while improving stomatal–photosynthetic coordination and titratable acidity. BLUE light promoted the highest stomatal conductance and transpiration, whereas RED induced faster stomatal closure without affecting the plant’s final biomass. GREEN supplementation showed intermediate physiological responses while enhancing fresh biomass, leaf brightness, and greenness. Spectral treatments significantly affected chlorophyll content, colorimetric parameters, sensory descriptors, aroma typicity, and texture, although antioxidant activity and overall consumer acceptability remained largely stable. WHITE and CNT samples achieved the highest sensory appreciation, while BLUE supplementation increased bitterness and reduced aromatic typicality. Overall, no single spectrum optimized all production objectives. WHITE provided the most balanced strategy for maximizing photosynthetic efficiency and premium-quality traits, whereas RED, GREEN, and BLUE offered more specialized benefits related to biomass increase, visual quality, or pigmentation. These findings highlight precision spectral management as an effective tool for tailoring basil production to specific agronomic and commercial targets in protected cultivation systems. Full article

Increased corrosivity of biodiesel toward metallic components has motivated the search for environmentally friendly corrosion inhibitors. However, studies investigating plant extracts as inhibitors in biodiesel systems remain limited, particularly for babassu biodiesel. In this work, the ethanolic extract of Myracrodruon urundeuva (“Aroeira-do-Sertão”) leaves was investigated for the first time as a green corrosion inhibitor for AISI 4340 carbon steel exposed to babassu biodiesel. Static immersion tests were conducted for 2592 h (108 days) at 45 °C, and the inhibitory performance was compared with that of the commercial antioxidant Trolox™. Corrosion behavior was evaluated by gravimetric weight loss measurements and surface morphology analysis using scanning electron microscopy. Phytochemical screening, FTIR, and ¹H NMR spectroscopy revealed the presence of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and tannins containing hydroxyl functional groups and conjugated aromatic systems. The ¹H NMR spectrum exhibited characteristic signals in the δ 6.6–6.4 ppm region, which were attributed to aromatic protons of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, while signals between δ 5.4 and 4.9 ppm indicated vinyl and olefinic protons associated with unsaturated secondary metabolites. These findings are consistent with FTIR results, confirming the presence of hydroxyl-rich phenolic structures and conjugated systems capable of promoting adsorption onto the metal surface. The extract exhibited a corrosion inhibition efficiency of 89%, significantly higher than that obtained with Trolox™ (27.9%). SEM analysis confirmed a substantial reduction in surface degradation in the presence of the extract. These results demonstrate the strong potential of Myracrodruon urundeuva leaf extract as a sustainable corrosion inhibitor for metallic materials in biodiesel environments. Full article

Sideritis species (Lamiaceae), the aromatic mountain teas of the Mediterranean and Balkans, accumulate a phytochemically rich array of bioactive compounds—phenylethanoid glycosides (notably verbascoside), flavonoid aglycones and glycosides, phenolic acids, and terpenoids—whose pharmacological relevance is increasingly defined at the molecular level. This review synthesizes current evidence on the molecular mechanisms through which these constituents act in human health and disease, integrating in vitro, in vivo, in silico, and clinical data. Anti-inflammatory activity is attributed to modulation of the NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways; direct verbascoside binding to both targets has been demonstrated in vitro by microscale thermophoresis (nanomolar-to-micromolar Kd), with suppression of TNF-α and IL-1β observed in cell-based and animal models. Neuroprotective effects are proposed to operate through amyloid-β clearance via ADAM10 upregulation and enhanced microglial phagocytosis in transgenic mouse models, together with in vitro triple monoamine (serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine) reuptake inhibition, and are supported at the functional level by small randomized clinical trials reporting cognitive and anxiolytic benefits. Antioxidant and cytoprotective actions reflect radical scavenging, metal chelation, and restoration of SOD/CAT/GSH with attenuation of lipid peroxidation, underpinning documented hepatoprotective and gastroprotective outcomes. Preliminary cardiometabolic findings from small clinical trials include cholesterol modulation and sex-dependent effects on insulin sensitivity that remain to be confirmed in larger, adequately powered cohorts. We further evaluate structure–activity relationships, species- and tissue-level chemical variability, and green extraction strategies relevant to standardized bioactivity-preserving preparations. Critical gaps—in vivo validation of antiproliferative effects documented only in cell-based and in silico studies so far, systematic toxicological assessment, and bioavailability characterization—are identified to guide translation. Collectively, Sideritis-derived phytochemicals, exemplified by S. scardica, represent a mechanistically coherent group of plant bioactives with defined molecular targets in inflammatory, neurodegenerative, and metabolic disorders. Full article

The fruits of Lycopus europaeus L. represent an unusual source of highly oxygenated aromatic abietane diterpenoids. Following our previous identification of euroabienol (1) from this plant material, a phytochemical reinvestigation of the dichloromethane fruit extract was undertaken to characterize related minor constituents. Three new aromatic abietane diterpenoids, 4-epileonubiastrin (2), 3α-acetoxyeuroabienol (3), and 11-deoxyeuroabienol (4), were isolated together with euroabienol (1). Their structures and relative configurations were established by MS, HRMS, IR, and extensive 1D and 2D NMR analyses. Manual iterative full spin analysis of selected ¹H NMR spin systems enabled refined determination of chemical shifts and coupling constants and provided additional support for conformational and configurational assignments, particularly in structurally congested parts of the molecules. To obtain a preliminary indication of biological relevance, compounds 1–4 and the semisynthetic O-methylated euroabienol derivative 5 were evaluated for acetylcholinesterase and urease inhibition. The observed effects were modest: compound 2 showed the highest AChE inhibition, reaching 31% at 50 μM, whereas compound 4 was the most active against jack bean urease, producing 40% inhibition at 100 μM. The study expands current knowledge of L. europaeus fruit diterpenoids and illustrates the value of ¹H NMR simulation as a complementary tool in the elucidation of closely related abietane natural products. Full article

Origanum L. (Lamiaceae) is a commercially important medicinal and aromatic plant genus worldwide. Endophytic bacterial communities are recognized for promoting plant growth and physiology, although their interactions with host metabolism remain insufficiently understood. In this work, an in vitro model of axenic Origanum heracleoticum plants was established to investigate the relationship between endophytic bacteria and their tissue of origin. Specifically, we evaluated the adaptation of two strains, Bacillus sp. OHL2 and Pseudomonas sp. OHS18, and the potential role of Bacillus sp. OHL2 in modulating plant physiology and secondary metabolism. Bacterial inoculation and re-isolation highlighted niche-specific adaptation and possible co-evolution within the host, suggesting an active role of the plant in regulating bacterial colonization within the endosphere. Inoculation with Bacillus sp. OHL2 significantly enhanced photosynthetic rate, leaf area, dry weight, and chlorophyll content. No substantial overall changes in secondary metabolism were detected. Rosmarinic acid was the predominant phenolic, while monoterpenes dominated, with carvacrol dominant. A significant tissue-by-inoculation interaction was observed for α-humulene, which decreased in leaves of inoculated plants. Overall, the in vitro system provides a valuable platform to study plant–endophyte interactions and bacterial mechanisms underlying the stimulation of plant growth and metabolic responses. Full article

Efficient micropropagation systems are essential for the large-scale production of uniform and high-quality plant material in aromatic species. In this study, the effects of gibberellic acid (GA₃; 1.4, 2.8, and 5.6 $\mathsf{\mu }$M) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA; 2.2, 4.4, and 8.8 $\mathsf{\mu }$M) were evaluated on the in vitro performance of Artemisia pontica across two successive subcultures. Morphological, physiological, and biochemical parameters were assessed, and the most effective treatment was further investigated through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to evaluate leaf trichome characteristics. GA₃ treatments significantly enhanced shoot growth, shoot number, and relative growth rate, with the strongest response observed at 2.8 $\mathsf{\mu }$M. This concentration also promoted higher chlorophyll content and antioxidant activity, indicating improved physiological status and metabolic performance of plantlets. In contrast, MeJA treatments, particularly at 8.8 $\mathsf{\mu }$M, reduced growth performance and pigment accumulation, suggesting a less favorable physiological status for micropropagation. Multivariate analysis (PCA and hierarchical clustering) revealed a clear separation among treatments, with GA₃ at 2.8 $\mathsf{\mu }$M associated with a coordinated increase in growth-related and antioxidant traits. SEM analysis showed that GA₃ influenced leaf epidermal structure, increasing the density of T-shaped, non-glandular trichomes and the diameter of glandular secreting trichomes, suggesting structural adjustments linked to metabolic activity. Overall, the results indicate that GA₃ at 2.8 $\mathsf{\mu }$M represents the most effective supplementation under the tested conditions, promoting a balanced improvement in shoot proliferation, physiological performance, antioxidant activity, and selected structural traits. Full article

Stingless bees, or meliponines, are essential pollinators in Brazil, with over 300 described species. These bees produce propolis or geopropolis (characterized by the incorporation of mineral material and clay) used to protect their nests. This product has aroused increasing scientific interest due to its therapeutic potential, including antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities. However, there is still limited knowledge about its volatile composition, which can vary according to the bee species and the botanical origin of the resins, influencing their biological and aromatic properties. The purpose of this study was to characterize the volatile composition of (geo)propolis produced by different species of native stingless bees from the Southeastern region of Brazil (São Paulo and Minas Gerais) and to detect if this composition is influenced by the species or by the region. The samples were analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results indicated that, despite some variations, the chemical profile for each species was mostly constant between regions. In São Paulo, about 25% of the features varied between species, whereas in Minas Gerais, only 5% showed significant differences, although one species (Melipona quadrifasciata) presented a very constant composition. Although the local vegetation determines the supply of resins for these bees, differences in the chemical composition of propolis are a result of a species’ choice of plant species. Full article

The proliferation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in food processing is an escalating public health issue. This circumstance has intensified the quest for ecological alternatives to impede pathogen proliferation and avert food degradation. This study firstly investigated the chemical compositions of three essential oils (EOs) sourced from Eucalyptus, Rosemary and Lavender plants using GC-MS. Subsequently, the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of the tested EOs were assessed against MRSA strains. The effects of these EOs on the expression of antibiotic resistance-related (mecA), virulence regulatory (agrA and sarA), and enterotoxin (sea) genes in MRSA strains were also evaluated by real-time PCR. Concerning the composition analyses performed on the EOs, our results revealed a total of 82 compounds, which accounted for 99.20, 98.10 and 92.78% of Eucalyptus, Rosemary and Lavender EOs, respectively. The anti-staphylococcal activity showed that Eucalyptus EO had the greatest effect, with diameter of inhibition exceeding 41 mm. Moreover, the association between Rosemary EO and the antibiotic (cefoxitin) highlighted the enhancement of the antibacterial effect against the MRSA reference strain. Additionally, Eucalyptus EO showed the highest inhibitory effect against both strains, with MIC values ranging from 0.781 to 1.563 mg/mL, followed by the Rosemary and Lavender EOs. All the tested EOs displayed a bactericidal effect against the tested MRSA strains. Regarding the antibiofilm activity, Rosemary and Lavender EOs had varying impacts on the pre-formed biofilms, with percentage reduction values ranging from 36% to 73% and 37% to 68%, respectively. Finally, the mRNA expression of the MRSA gene A mecA and virulence genes agrA, sarA and sea declined following EO treatment compared with the control. The findings of this study highlighted the efficacy of locally tested EOs in reducing MRSA biofilm formation and the expression of virulence factors and suggested their potential use in food safety and culinary applications. Full article

Background: Rosmarinus officinalis L. is a medicinally important aromatic plant rich in bioactive secondary metabolites with diverse therapeutic properties. This study aimed to characterize the phytochemical profile of R. officinalis leaf extracts, isolate carnosic acid as a major bioactive diterpene, and evaluate its biological activities. Methods: Leaf extracts were prepared using solvents of increasing polarity and analyzed by phytochemical screening and UHPLC/QTOF-MS. Carnosic acid was isolated by thin-layer chromatography and assessed for antibacterial, antibiofilm, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antiproliferative activities using in vitro assays. Expression of apoptosis-related genes was also investigated. Results: Methanolic and ethanolic extracts exhibited the highest abundance of phenolic compounds and secondary metabolites, whereas the hexane extract showed lower phytochemical content. UHPLC/QTOF-MS identified seven major metabolites, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, and abietane-type diterpenes. Purified carnosic acid demonstrated potent antibacterial activity (MIC: 10–23 μg/mL) and inhibited biofilm formation by up to 90%. Strong antioxidant activity was observed, with DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging IC₅₀ values of 125 and 130 μg/mL, respectively. The compound also exhibited notable anti-inflammatory activity and markedly inhibited α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities. Furthermore, carnosic acid exhibited dose-dependent antiproliferative activity against MCF-7, HepG2, and MCF-10A cells, reducing cell viability to 10.8%, 16.9%, and 70.4 ± 1.8%, respectively, at 250 μg/mL, with corresponding IC₅₀ values of 28.3, 37.8, and >250 μg/mL, respectively. Gene expression analysis revealed upregulation of BAX and downregulation of BCL2, indicating activation of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis. Conclusions:R. officinalis leaves represent a valuable source of multifunctional phytochemicals, particularly carnosic acid. Its broad-spectrum biological activities and apoptosis-inducing potential support its promising application in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and biomedical fields. Full article