Search Results (642)

In this study, under varying PDSP (plunging depths of stirring pin) and process parameters, refill friction stir spot welding tests were performed on 6061-T6 aluminum alloy, relying on a stirring tool with a 12 mm sleeve diameter and an 8 mm stirring pin diameter. The results manifested the internal defects in the weld zone when PDSP was 0, notwithstanding the alterations in process parameters. However, these flaws disappeared when PDSP was 0.5 mm and 1 mm. In the weld zone, PDSP exerted a dramatic effect on the internal metal flow state, particularly the curvature of the “Hook” shape and the width of the bonding ligament. It changed the downward bending of the ‘Hook’ into an upward one, influencing the fracture behavior of the weld zone and elevating the ULSF (ultimate lap shear force) by up to 20% (PDSP = 0.5 mm, welding speed = 30 mm/min, rotation speed is 1200 rpm). Besides, the PDSP intensified the PAZ (pin affected zone) pressure, induced more metal flowing into the SAZ (sleeve affected zone), thus reinforced the SAZ-TMAZ(thermomechanically affected zone) bonding strength, and upgraded the region’s microhardness. In summary, the PDSP is commendable for bolstering the weld zone’s performance, but excessively large PDSP values incur drastic indentations in the PAZ, which diminish the ULSF. Full article

The 7075-T7451 aluminum alloy, widely used in aerospace, aviation, and automotive fields for critical load-bearing components due to its excellent mechanical properties, suffers from residual stresses induced by thermo-mechanical coupling during milling, which deteriorate workpiece performance. This study explores how key milling parameters—spindle speed *n_c*, feed per tooth *f_z*, cutting depth *a_p*, and cutting width *a_e*—affect surface residual stress and cutting force via orthogonal experiments and finite element analysis (FEA). Results show *a_e* is critical for X-direction residual stresses, while *f_z* dominates Y-direction ones. Cutting force increases with *f_z*, *a_p*, and *a_e* but decreases with higher *n_c*. Multivariate regression-based prediction models for residual stress and cutting force were established, which effectively characterize parameter–response relationships with maximum prediction errors of 18.69% (residual stress) and 12.27% (cutting force), showing good engineering applicability. The findings provide theoretical and experimental foundations for multi-parameter optimization in aluminum alloy milling and residual stress/cutting force control, with satisfactory practical effectiveness. Full article

In resistance spot welding (RSW), the total electrical resistance (dynamic resistance) as the sum of bulk and contact resistance is a key variable. Both of these respective resistances influence the welding result, but the exact ratio to the total resistance of a real existing sheet is not known. Due to the high scatter in the RSW of aluminum alloys compared to steel, it is of interest to be able to explicitly determine the individual resistance components in order to gain a better understanding of the relationship between the initial state and the lower reproducibility of aluminum welding in the future. So far, only the total resistance and the bulk resistance could be determined experimentally. Due to the different sample shapes, it was not possible to consistently determine the contact resistance from the measurements. In order to realize this, a method was developed that contains the following innovations with the aid of simulation: determination of the absolute bulk resistance at room temperature (RT), determination of the absolute contact resistance at RT and determination of the ratio of bulk and contact resistance. This method makes it possible to compare the resistances of the bulk material and the surface in the initial state quantitatively. This now allows the comparison of batches regarding the surface resistance, especially for welding processes. For the aluminum sheets (EN AW-5182-O, EN AW-6014-T4) investigated, the method showed that the contact resistance dominates and the bulk resistance is less than 20%. These data can also be used to make predictions about the weldability of the alloy using artificial intelligence (AI). If experimental data are available, the method can also be applied to higher temperatures. Full article

The development of technology has driven a rising need for high-accuracy and high-efficiency manufacturing of low-volume products. Incremental forming technology, characterized by die-free flexibility and low production costs, can effectively replace stamping processes for manufacturing customized small-batch products. However, high-performance aluminum alloys generally exhibit poor room-temperature plasticity but excellent high-temperature plasticity, necessitating the integration of thermal-assisted methods for manufacturing such products. However, the temperature of the forming region will excessively rise without temperature control, which will affect the forming performance of the material in hot incremental sheet forming of AA2024-T4 aluminum alloy. This study focuses on AA2024-T4 aluminum alloy and proposes a uniform temperature control method for the electric hot tube-assisted incremental sheet forming process, incorporating an adaptive fuzzy PID algorithm. The temperature difference of the forming region is lower than 6% under the various temperatures. On this basis, the forming limit angle and the microstructure state of the material are analyzed, and the grain feature of the material exhibits significantly refined grains and the uniform fine grain distribution under 180 °C with the temperature control of the adaptive fuzzy PID algorithm. Full article

This study investigates the friction stir joining of AA6082-T6 aluminum alloy and Noryl GFN2 polymer in a buttstrap configuration, targeting the development of lightweight cylindrical-shaped structures where the polymer provides thermal, chemical, and electrical insulation, while the aluminum ensures mechanical integrity. A parametric analysis was carried out to assess the ability to produce friction stir buttstrap composite panels in a single processing step and assess the resulting tensile and flexural behavior. To that end, travel and rotating speeds ranging from 2150 to 2250 rpm, and 100 to 140 mm/min, respectively, were employed while keeping plunge depth and the tilt angle constant. A total of nine composite joints were successfully produced and subsequently subjected to both tensile and four-point bending tests. The tensile and flexural strength results ranged from 80 to 139 MPa, and 39 to 47 MPa, respectively. Moreover, the microstructural examination revealed that all joints exhibited a defect within the joining region and its size and shape had a significant effect on tensile strength, whereas the flexural strength was less affected with more uniform results. The joining region was also characterized by a decrease in hardness, particularly in the pin-affected region on the aluminum end of the joint, exhibiting a W-shaped pattern. Contrarily, on the polymeric end of the joining region, no significant change in hardness was observed. Full article

Shoulder-assisted heating friction plug welding (SAH-FPW) experiments were conducted to repair keyhole-like volumetric defects in 6082-T6 aluminum alloy, employing a novel concave backing hole technique on a flat backing plate. This approach yielded well-formed plug welded joints without significant macroscopic defects. Notably, the joints exhibited no thinning on the top surface while forming a reinforcing boss structure within the concave backing hole on the backside, resulting in a slight increase in the overall load-bearing thickness. The introduction of the concave backing hole led to distinct microstructural zones compared to joints welded without it. The resulting joint microstructure comprised five regions: the nugget zone, a recrystallized zone, a shoulder-affected zone, the thermo-mechanically affected zone, and the heat-affected zone. Significantly, this process eliminated the poorly consolidated ‘filling zone’ often associated with conventional plug repairs. The microhardness across the joints was generally slightly higher than that of the base metal (BM), with the concave backing hole technique having minimal influence on overall hardness values or their distribution. However, under identical welding parameters, joints produced using the concave backing hole consistently demonstrated higher tensile strength than those without. The joints displayed pronounced ductile fracture characteristics. A maximum ultimate tensile strength of 278.10 MPa, equivalent to 89.71% of the BM strength, was achieved with an elongation at fracture of 9.02%. Analysis of the grain structure revealed that adjacent grain misorientation angle distributions deviated from a random distribution, indicating dynamic recrystallization. The nugget zone (NZ) possessed a higher fraction of high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs) compared to the RZ and TMAZ. These findings indicate that during the SAH-FPW process, the use of a concave backing hole ultimately enhances structural integrity and mechanical performance. Full article

CFRP possesses the advantages of lightweight and high strength, but its cost is relatively high, and its ductility is insufficient; aluminum alloys have a relatively low cost and good ductility. This paper develops a CFRP-aluminum alloy laminated tube (CFRP-AL tube), which combines the advantages of CFRP and aluminum alloy. Such composite components have broad application prospects in the field of spatial structures. The CFRP-AL tubes were studied by experimental, numerical, and theoretical research on their axial compression performance in this paper. Firstly, the standard tensile test was carried out on 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. Combining the test results and references, the Johnson–Cook hardening model parameters of aluminum alloy were determined. The tensile test of CFRP was conducted to determine its material parameters. Based on composite material mechanics and fracture mechanics, a composite progressive damage model for the CFRP-AL tube was established. Secondly, axial compression tests were carried out on 27 CFRP-AL tubes and 3 aluminum alloy tubes with a small slenderness ratio. The test results show that the typical failure mode of CFRP-AL tubes with small slenderness ratios is strength failure, and the ultimate bearing capacity rises by 11~31% compared to aluminum alloy tubes. Thirdly, a user material subroutine capable of simulating CFRP failure was developed. Based on the user material subroutine, the effect of the initial imperfection, the fiber layer angle, the fiber layer thickness, the slenderness ratio, the diameter-thickness ratio and the CFRP volume ratio were discussed. And the failure mechanism and response of the CFRP-AL tubes under the axial compression were obtained. Finally, based on the strength theory, the formula predicting the bearing capacity of the strength failure was established, and the results of the formula were in a good agreement with the experimental and numerical results. Full article

This study investigates the fabrication and residual stress behavior of a 0.5 wt.% graphene-reinforced AA2195 aluminum matrix composite, developed for advanced aerospace structural applications. The composite was synthesized via squeeze casting, followed by a multi-pass hot rolling process and subsequent T8 heat treatment. The evolution of residual stress was systematically examined after each rolling pass and during thermal treatments. The successful incorporation of graphene into the matrix was confirmed through Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. Residual stress measurements after each pass revealed a progressive increase in compressive stress, reaching a maximum of −68 MPa after the fourth hot rolling pass. Prior to the fifth pass, a solution treatment at 530 °C was performed to dissolve coarse precipitates and relieve internal stresses. Cold rolling during the fifth pass reduced the compressive residual stress to −40 MPa, and subsequent artificial aging at 180 °C for 48 h further decreased it to −23 MPa due to recovery and stress relaxation mechanisms. Compared to the unreinforced AA2195 alloy in the T8 condition, which exhibited a tensile residual stress of +29 MPa, the graphene-reinforced composite in the same condition retained a compressive residual stress of −23 MPa. This represents a net improvement of 52 MPa, highlighting the composite’s superior capability to retain compressive residual stress. The presence of graphene significantly influenced the stress distribution by introducing thermal expansion mismatch and acting as a barrier to dislocation motion. Overall, the composite demonstrated enhanced residual stress characteristics, making it a promising candidate for lightweight, fatigue-resistant aerospace components. Full article

The weight reduction is a key objective in modern engineering, particularly in the automotive industry, to enhance vehicle performance and reduce the carbon footprint. In this context aluminum alloys are widely used in structural automotive applications, often through forging processes that enhance mechanical properties compared to the results for casting. However, the high cost of forging can limit its economic feasibility. Low pressure forging (LPF) combines the benefits of casting and forging, employing controlled pressure to fill the mold cavity and improve metal purity. This study investigates the effectiveness of the LPF process in optimizing the mechanical properties of AlSi7Mg aluminum alloy by evaluating the influence of three different magnesium content levels. The specimens underwent T6 heat treatment (solubilization treatment followed by artificial aging), with varying aging times and temperatures. Microstructural analysis and tensile tests were conducted to determine the optimal conditions for achieving superior mechanical strength, contributing to the design of lightweight, high-performance components for advanced automotive applications. The most promising properties were achieved with a T6 treatment consisting of solubilization at 540 °C for 6 h followed by aging at 180 °C for 4 h, resulting in mechanical properties of σ_y 280 MPa, σ_m 317 MPa, and A% 3.5%. Full article

This paper primarily investigates the response and failure behavior of 6063-T5 aluminum alloy square tubes with varying outer side lengths under symmetric curvature-controlled cyclic bending in different bending directions. The response is characterized by the moment–curvature relationship and the variation in the outer side length with respect to curvature, whereas failure is characterized by the relationship between the controlled curvature and the number of cycles required to initiate buckling. The outer side lengths studied are 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, and 50 mm, and the bending directions considered are 0°, 22.5°, and 45°. The moment–curvature curves exhibited cyclic hardening, and stable loops were formed for all outer side lengths and bending directions. An increase in the outer side length resulted in a higher peak bending moment, while a greater bending direction led to a slight increase in the peak bending moment. For a fixed bending direction, the curves representing the variation of the outer side length (defined as the change in length divided by the original length) with respect to curvature displayed symmetry, serrated features, and an overall increasing trend as the number of cycles increased, irrespective of the specific outer side length. In addition, increasing either the outer side length or altering the bending direction led to a larger variation in the outer side length. As for the relationship between curvature and the number of cycles required to initiate buckling, the data for each bending direction and each of the four outer side lengths formed distinct straight lines on a double-logarithmic plot. Based on the experimental observations, empirical equations were developed to characterize these relationships. These equations were then used to predict the experimental data and showed excellent agreement with the measured results. Full article

The future of the automotive industry appears to hinge on the integration of dissimilar materials, such as aluminum alloys and carbon steel. However, this combination can lead to galvanic corrosion, compromising the structural integrity. In this study, laser-welded joints of 6013-T4 aluminum alloy and DP980 steel were evaluated for their morphology, microhardness, and corrosion resistance. Corrosion resistance was assessed using the electrochemical noise technique over time in 0.1 M Na₂SO₄ and 3.5% NaCl solutions. The wavelet function was applied to remove the DC trend, and energy diagrams were generated to identify the type of corrosive process occurring on the electrodes. Corrosion on the electrodes was also monitored using photomicrographic images. Analysis revealed an aluminum–steel mixture in the melting zone, along with the presence of AlFe, AlFe₃, and AlI₃Fe₄ intermetallic compounds. The highest Vickers microhardness was observed in the heat-affected zone, adjacent to the melt zone, where a martensitic microstructure was identified. The 6013-T4 aluminum alloy demonstrated the highest corrosion resistance in both media. Conversely, the electrochemical noise resistance was similar for the DP980 steel and the weld bead, indicating that the laser welding process does not significantly impact this property. The energy diagrams showed that localized pitting corrosion was the predominant form of corrosion. However, generalized and mixed corrosion were also observed, which corroborated the macroscopic analysis of the electrodes. Full article

This study systematically investigates the axial compression capacity calculation method for 7075-T6 aluminum alloy rectangular hollow section (RHS) members based on the Continuous Strength Method (CSM). Axial compression tests were conducted on nine RHS specimens using a YAW-500 electro-hydraulic servo testing machine, and nonlinear finite element models considering material plasticity and geometric imperfections were established using ABAQUS/CAE. The numerical results showed good agreement with experimental data, verifying the model’s reliability. Parametric analysis was then performed on RHS members, leading to the development of a CSM-based capacity calculation method and a modified curve for predicting the stability reduction factors of square hollow section members. The approach combining this modified curve with Chinese codes is termed the Modified Chinese Code Method. The axial capacities calculated by the CSM-based method, Modified Chinese Code Method, EN 1999-1-1, and AASTM were compared for accuracy evaluation. The conclusions indicate that the proposed modified curve provides more accurate predictions of stability coefficients for square tubes, and the CSM-based method yields more precise capacity predictions than existing international design codes, though it may overestimate the capacity for Class 4 cross-section members and thus requires further refinement. Full article

The research presented herein investigates the impact of axial force and feed rate in the Friction Stir Welding (FSW) of aluminum alloy 6061-T6 in a GROB G552 horizontal 5-axis CNC machine with adaptive torque control enabled. The purpose of this study is to further advance the performance and characteristics of FSW aluminum alloys in 5-axis CNCs, particularly in conjunction with adaptive torque control. The Taguchi and ANOVA methods were utilized to define parameter tables and analyze the resulting data. Optical microscopy and tensile tests were performed on the welded samples to evaluate weld quality. The results from this study provide clear evidence that axial force has a significant effect on tensile strength in FSW AA6061-T6. The maximum UTS found in this study, welded with an axial force of 9.4 kN, retained 69% tensile strength of the base material. Conversely, a decrease in strength and an increase in void formation was found at higher feed rates with this force. Ideal welds, with minimal defects across all feed rates, were performed with an axial force of 8.3 kN. A feed rate of 300 mm/min at this force resulted in a 67% base metal strength. These findings contribute to improving joint strength and application efficiency in FSW AA6061-T6 performed in a horizontal 5-axis CNC machine where adaptive torque control is enabled. Full article

Based on end-quenching and step-quenching experiments combined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the quench sensitivity of a novel high-strength aluminum alloy was investigated and compared with that of GB/T 7075 and 7175 alloys; quench factor analysis (QFA) was employed to predict the hardness values of the alloy and investigate the effect of quenching rate on its mechanical properties. The experimental results indicate that when the cooling rate decreases from 402.5 °C/s to 3.6 °C/s, the hardness reduction rate of the novel high-strength aluminum alloy is 15%. Furthermore, the nose temperature of the time–temperature–property (TTP) curve for this alloy is 325 °C, with a critical transformation time of 0.4 s. The quench-sensitive temperature range is 219 °C to 427 °C, which is lower than the quenching sensitivity of 7075 and 7175 alloys. The new alloy reduces its quenching sensitivity by optimizing the composition of alloying elements. Furthermore, the QFA demonstrates high predictive accuracy, with a maximum error of 5%. The smaller the quenching factor τ, the greater the hardness of the alloy after aging. Combined with the TTP curve, the alloy properties are optimized by modulating the quenching rate. This study provides a theoretical basis for selecting hot forming–quenching integrated process parameters in automotive high-strength aluminum alloys. Full article

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a novel welding technique that produces a solid-state weld by generating frictional heat and plastic deformation at the weld spot with a revolving, non-consumable welding tool. Despite processing a wide range of industrial materials, FSW has concentrated on welding aluminum and its alloys because of its high strength-to-weight ratio and uses in the shipbuilding, aerospace, and other fabrication industries. Important FSW process factors that determine the mechanical qualities of the weldment are the tool tilt angle, tool traverse feed, tool pin profile, tool rotational speed (TRS), tool traverse speed (TTS), tool pin profile (TPP), and shoulder plunge depth. Variations in the required process parameters cause defects, which lower the weld quality of FSWed aluminum alloys (AA). Therefore, keeping an eye on and managing the FSW process is crucial to preserving the caliber of the weld joints. The current study aims to investigate the changes in the mechanical characteristics and microstructure of the FSWed AA5052-H111 and AA6061-T6 joints. To perform the FSW experiments, we varied TRS, TTS, and TPP on plates that were 5 mm thick and had a butt joint structure. Following welding, the microstructure of the weld zones was examined to observe how the grains had changed. The joint’s tensile strength reached a maximum of 227 MPa for the square-shaped TPP, and the micro-Vickers hardness test results showed a maximum of 102 HV at the weld nugget zone (WNZ). Full article