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Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Quality and Contamination".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2025) | Viewed by 15992

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Sara Lehmann-Konera

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Guest Editor

Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Spatial Management, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, 2d Kraśnicka Ave., 20-718 Lublin, Poland
Interests: arctic; climate change; river; lakes; creeks; glaciers; sediments; transboundary pollutants; trace elements; persistent organic pollutants

Dr. Anna Maria Sulej-Suchomska

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Guest Editor

Department of Quality Management, Faculty of Management and Quality Sciences, Gdynia Maritime University, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland
Interests: environmental analytical chemistry; analytical method development; environmental quality management; organic pollutants; airport runoff water; water quality; management of wastewater/stormwater; toxicity

Dr. Joanna Potapowicz

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Guest Editor Assistant

Department of Hydrology, Faculty of Oceanography and Geography, University of Gdańsk, 4 Bażyńskiego Street, 80-306 Gdańsk, Poland
Interests: maritime antarctica; freshwater; sediments; snow; anthropogenic influence; persistent organic pollutants; long-range atmospheric transport; environmental fate; cryosphere degradation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Studies on water quality is particularly important for understanding the present and future environmental challenges occurring due to intensifying human activities and ongoing climate change. Environmental pollutants come from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Significant amounts of pollutants are emitted into the environment in urbanized and industrialized areas of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The transboundary pollutants are also found in areas lacking local sources, including remote areas such as the Arctic and the Antarctica. To fully understand the environmental changes around us and the possible risks associated with them, it is of paramount importance to develop an interdisciplinary approach to study both spatial and temporal (long-term and short-term) changes in the levels of pollutants in surface waters. In such a research method, special attention should be paid to not only the direct impact of human activities but also to changes in meteorological conditions that can cause a hydrochemical response in surface waters.

This Special Issue aims to publish papers on water quality studies incorporating environmental data and explanations of related factors and processes that may contribute to changes in pollutant levels. Therefore, we encourage authors to submit cross-disciplinary articles on observations of environmental change based on the chemical analysis of various types of surface water (i.e., snow, precipitation, runoff water, rivers, streams, lakes, and marine), groundwater as well as artificial reservoirs in different regions of the world.

Dr. Sara Lehmann-Konera
Dr. Anna Maria Sulej-Suchomska
Guest Editors

Dr. Joanna Potapowicz
Guest Editor Assistant

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

transboundary pollutants
persistent compounds
bioaccumulative chemicals
toxic contaminants
trace elements
major ions
organic compounds
catchment
freshwater
runoff and discharge
climate change impact

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 3629 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrient Distribution Characteristics and Eutrophication Evaluation of Coastal Water near the Yellow River Estuary, China

by Jing Xiao, Xiang Chen, Li Zhou, Haibo Zhang, Xiaoshuai Hang and Yudong Chen

Water 2025, 17(16), 2469; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162469 - 20 Aug 2025

Viewed by 758

Abstract

Coastal ecosystems have faced escalating environmental degradation in recent years, with eutrophication and nutrient imbalances emerging as critical concerns, particularly in estuarine regions. Understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics of key nutrients, including dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP), and silicate (SiO₃-Si), is essential for effective coastal management. This study examines the spatial and seasonal variations in these nutrients across 36 sampling sites in the Yellow River estuary from 2016 to 2018. Results indicate that DIN was the primary contributor to water quality degradation, with more than 27% of sampling sites exceeding the Class II seawater quality standard in 2018. Nutrient concentrations were notably elevated near the estuary. The eutrophication index (EI) revealed predominantly mild-to-moderate eutrophication levels throughout the study area. The study area exhibited a widespread phosphorus (P) limitation, with 44.4–94.4% of coastal waters experiencing P-restricted eutrophication. The N/P ratio significantly exceeded the Redfield ratio (16), indicating a pronounced nutrient imbalance. Furthermore, SiO₃-Si concentrations displayed a declining trend, highlighting the need for balanced nutrient management alongside eutrophication mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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20 pages, 2580 KB

Open AccessArticle

Heavy Metal Pollution in Water and Seston in a Subtropical Coastal Lagoon of the Gulf of Mexico: Hydrometeorological and Anthropic Influence

by Alejandra Reyes-Márquez, Hugo Alberto Barrera-Huertas, Jacinto Elías Sedeño-Díaz, Enrique Morales-Acuña, Sergio Aguíñiga-García, Rafael Cervantes-Duarte and Eugenia López-López

Water 2025, 17(13), 1929; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131929 - 27 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1861

Abstract

Heavy metal pollution in aquatic ecosystems is a critical environmental issue worldwide. In these ecosystems, the seston adsorbs heavy metals from the water and introduces them into the food web, causing potential environmental and health risks. This study analyses how heavy metals (Cd, Hg, Cr, Cu, Pb, Fe, and Mn) are distributed in the water and seston of the Tampamachoco Lagoon, an ecosystem affected by pollution from a thermoelectric plant and by hydrometeorological variability, both of which influence their concentrations. The relationships among metal distribution, physicochemical variables, and the influence of plant emissions in three seasons (rainy, northerly windstorms, and dry) were analyzed. The metal concentrations in seston (Fe > Mn > Pb > Cu > Cr > Hg) were up to four times higher than in the water column (Fe > Mn > Cr > Cd > Pb > Cu > Hg), emphasizing the key role of particulate matter in metal transport and bioavailability. Particularly, the Cd concentrations exceeded WHO thresholds by 527.6% in the water column during the rainy season, while Hg and Pb exceeded the thresholds of the Mexican criteria for the protection of marine aquatic life by 4.05% and 41.6%, respectively. Principal Component Analyses revealed distinct spatiotemporal distribution patterns for metals in water and seston, reflecting the combined effects of natural variability and anthropogenic inputs. The strong association between metals and seston indicates continued contamination and potential risks to aquatic ecosystems. These findings highlight the environmental impact of metals on seston and the need for monitoring to assess aquatic ecosystems’ health. Our results highlight the importance of understanding how metals are distributed between seston and water, and how climate variability affects pollutant redistribution patterns. We propose that water quality regulations need to be rethought and redirected towards the achievement of new strategic objectives that truly integrate the different pollutant sources whose final destination is water bodies, so as to protect and conserve biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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17 pages, 3511 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Method for Polyelectrolytes in Sludge Condensation (Centrate) Units of a Wastewater Treatment Plant

by Aysun Özdemir and Yaşar Nuhoğlu

Water 2025, 17(6), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17060825 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1058

Abstract

Polyelectrolytes (PEs) have a wide range of applications in various industrial processes, including water and wastewater treatment, cosmetics, and the textile industry. They remain irreplaceable as flocculants, particularly in wastewater treatment and sludge dewatering. Due to the variability in the pollutant parameters of wastewater over time, residual polyelectrolytes from the sludge dewatering process are inevitable. These residues can alter the physical and chemical properties of water, potentially causing an environmental hazard. Polyelectrolyte residues are a critical concern in wastewater treatment processes, and their concentration measurements represent one of the most essential steps in ensuring process efficiency. This study investigates the use of UV-VIS spectrophotometry to determine the concentrations of PEs used in water and wastewater treatment. The absorbance spectra of two different cationic polyelectrolytes (PEs) were tested in the wavelength range of 190–300 nm. A linear increase in absorbance values was observed with increasing polyelectrolyte concentrations, with R² > 0.99 at 190 nm wavelengths. The lowest detection limits were determined as 0.05 mg/L in distilled water and 0.085 mg/L in centrate water. For wastewater samples collected from sludge dewatering units, detection limits ranged from 0.08 mg/L to 0.013 mg/L, depending on the type of polymer. The method was successfully applied to determine polymer concentrations in centrate samples collected from two different wastewater treatment plants. It is thought that this study will assist in research on polyelectrolyte analysis in wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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13 pages, 2574 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Newly Developed Approach for Analyzing the Degradation of Glyphosate and Aminomethylphosphonic Acid in Different Salinity Levels

by Lai-Chuan Chang, Zhen-Hao Liao and Fan-Hua Nan

Water 2025, 17(5), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17050645 - 23 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1039

Abstract

The report for the global presence of herbicide glyphosate and its metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) is presently limited in the marine environment, presumably due to a lack of analytical methods capable of detecting these compounds at low concentrations in high-salinity matrices. In the present study, we aimed to develop a time-saving and reliable method for the analysis of glyphosate and AMPA in different salinity levels of seawater. This novel method integrates a derivatization process with a solid-phase extraction cleanup step to mitigate salt-matrix effects during high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The present method was validated in environmental freshwater and seawater with the limit of quantitation of 2 and 0.5 ng/mL and coefficient of variation percentage of 0.63–3.15% and 0.59–3.07% for glyphosate and AMPA, respectively. The degradations of three concentrations of spiked glyphosate (10, 100, 1000 mg/L) were assessed under two treatment conditions: with and without sterilization and at three salinity levels (0, 17.5, 35‰) over a period of 112 days. The results show that glyphosate degradation is significantly higher in non-sterilized water compared to sterilized conditions, indicating that microbial activity is the primary driver of degradation. Furthermore, brackish water appears to provide a more favorable environment for the microbial biodegradation of glyphosate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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15 pages, 2319 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water Quality in Estero Salado of Guayaquil Using Three-Way Multivariate Methods of the STATIS Family

by Ana Grijalva-Endara, Juan Diego Valenzuela-Cobos, Fabricio Guevara-Viejó, Patricia Antonieta Macías Mora, Jorge Stalin Quichimbo Moran, Geovanny Ruiz-Muñoz, Purificación Galindo-Villardón and Purificación Vicente-Galindo

Water 2024, 16(15), 2196; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152196 - 2 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2137

Abstract

Water property parameters were analyzed over 9 months across six stations within the Estero Salado. The parameters under evaluation included nitrite (NO₂⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), phosphate (PO₄³⁻), ammonium (NH₄⁺), temperature, pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), conductivity, salinity, color, turbidity, suspended solids, hardness, and alkalinity. Additionally, the TRIX index (which measures chlorophyll, oxygen saturation, nitrogen, and phosphorus) was considered. The multivariate technique employed was partial triadic analysis (PTA), a specialized variant developed from STATIS, enabling the examination of the common structure’s stability across months and the positioning of stations and variables within a compromise space. This analysis elucidated a variability of 69% and 96%, respectively. Stations could be characterized based on their associations with specific variables, while the analysis also facilitated the identification of months impacting the common structure of pollution indicators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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27 pages, 12652 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ecological Potential of Freshwater Dam Reservoirs Based on Fish Index, First Evaluation in Poland

by Piotr Pieckiel, Krzysztof Kozłowski and Tomasz Kuczyński

Water 2024, 16(15), 2169; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16152169 - 31 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1512

Abstract

A pilot ichthyological index was developed for use within the Water Framework Directive in the area of Central and Eastern Europe for dam reservoirs, which are heavily modified water bodies. This is the first approach to assessing this water body type based on ichthyofauna in Poland. Various fishing gear types were used. The tested dam reservoirs were scattered throughout the country, from lowland to mountainous areas, with very diverse hydrological and morphological characteristics and pressure ranges based on the TSI index. In preliminary work, a correlation matrix with the TSI index’s pressure indicator was tested based on the abundance or biomass of fish species, fish families present, fishing gear used, and fishing depth range for a total of 588 cases. As a result of the tests carried out, the preliminary indicator was based on the ratio of the number of the two families Cyprinidae and Percidae. The correlation between the developed indicator and the pressure index was strong (r = 0.77; p < 0.001). The Percidae family exhibited a strong correlation with the most connections in the matrix. Based on the obtained results, the principle of using already confirmed relationships, such as the ratio between Cyprinidae and Percidae fish families, in the assessment of eutrophication was confirmed to be effective, guaranteeing the effective initial assessment of ecological potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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17 pages, 4817 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Water and Sediment Quality in Lake Mogan, Türkiye

by Kagan Ozdemir, Mirac Nur Ciner, Huseyin Kurtulus Ozcan and Serdar Aydın

Water 2024, 16(11), 1546; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111546 - 28 May 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2036

Abstract

The wetlands, with their delicate ecosystems, play a crucial role in regulating water regimes and supporting diverse plant and animal communities, particularly those associated with water habitats. Mogan Lake, located within the Gölbaşı Special Environmental Protection Area, stands out as a unique habitat, hosting over 200 bird species. This study aimed to assess the current water quality of Mogan Lake by analysing various water quality variables. Three sampling sites, representing the northern, middle, and southern parts of the lake, were selected to examine both surface water and bottom sludge characteristics through the analysis of 29 pollutant variables. Water samples were collected from 30 cm beneath the water surface and 50 cm above the bottom of the lake. Sediment samples were collected from the sludge at the lake basin. Additionally, to understand their impact on the lake’s water quality, 26 pollutants were also measured in water samples taken from the five main streams that feed the lake. The results reveal a significant level of organic pollution in the lake, along with elevated nitrogen levels indicating hypertrophic conditions. Although organic pollutants were detected in the lake bottom sediment through analysis, they are considered non-hazardous in terms of heavy metals and other inorganic variables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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15 pages, 4482 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Sampling Strategies for Estimating Riverine Nutrient Loads in the Yiluo River Watershed, China

by Guoshuai Zhang, Yanxue Xu, Min Xu, Zhonghua Li and Shunxing Qin

Water 2024, 16(11), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111506 - 24 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1278

Abstract

Accurately estimating nutrient loads is crucial for effective management and monitoring of aquatic ecosystems. This study evaluated the uncertainty in different sampling frequencies and calculation methods for estimating total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) loads in the Yiluo River watershed, a tributary of the Yellow River in China. Using daily TN and TP concentration data from 2019 to 2020, we conducted a bootstrapping analysis to evaluate the accuracy of nine different load estimation methods at different sampling frequencies. Our results showed that Method 3 (M_3, constant concentration interpolation) and Method 7 (M_7, flow-weighted concentration method), when used with a biweekly sampling frequency, had the lowest Standard Deviation of the Percentage errors (STD) (7.70% and 8.60% for TN, 12.0% and 18.8% for TP, respectively) and Mean Relative Error (MRE) values (0.078% and −1.60% for TN, 0.305% and 2.33% for TP, respectively) on an annual scale. For monthly TN and TP load estimates, M_7 can control the MRE within ±20% at a biweekly sampling frequency. Furthermore, the uncertainty in TN and TP load estimates was generally larger during the summer months (June–September), emphasizing the important role of storm events in nutrient export. Extreme events (<10% of the time) contributed approximately 50% of the annual nutrient loads. The findings of this study provide a scientific basis for optimizing water quality monitoring schemes and management strategies in agricultural watersheds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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20 pages, 12761 KB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Observations of Rainfall Chemistry Composition in Bellsund (SW Spitsbergen, Svalbard)

by Sara Lehmann-Konera, Marek Ruman, Marcin Frankowski, Łukasz Małarzewski, Krzysztof Raczyński, Filip Pawlak, Joanna Jóźwik, Joanna Potapowicz and Żaneta Polkowska

Water 2024, 16(2), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020299 - 15 Jan 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1721

Abstract

Global warming results in increasingly widespread wildfires, mostly in Siberia, but also in North America and Europe, which are responsible for the uncontrollable emission of pollutants, also to the High Arctic region. This study examines 11 samples of rainfall collected in August in a coastal area of southern Bellsund (Svalbard, Norway). It covers detailed analysis of major ions (i.e., Cl⁻, NO₃⁻, and SO₄²⁻) and elements (i.e., Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn) to Hybrid Single-Particle Langrarian Integrated Trajectory( HYSPLIT) backward air mass trajectories. The research of wildfires, volcanic activities, and dust storms in the Northern Hemisphere has permitted the assessment of their relations to the fluctuations and origins of elements. We distinguished at least 2 days (27 and 28 August) with evident influence of volcanic activity in the Aleutian and Kuril–Kamchatka trenches. Volcanic activity was also observed in the case of the Siberian wildfires, as confirmed by air mass trajectories. Based on the presence of non-sea K (nsK), non-sea sulphates (nss), and Ca (the soil factor of burned areas), the continuous influence of wildfires on rainfall chemistry was also found. Moreover, dust storms in Eurasia were mainly responsible for the transport of Zn, Pb, and Cd to Svalbard. Global warming may lead to the increased deposition of mixed-origin pollutants in the summer season in the Arctic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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Review

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19 pages, 1369 KB

Open AccessReview

Current State of Arsenic, Fluoride, and Nitrate Groundwater Contamination in Northern Mexico: Distribution, Health Impacts, and Emerging Research

by Mélida Gutiérrez, María Teresa Alarcón-Herrera, María Socorro Espino-Valdés and Luz Idalia Valenzuela-García

Water 2025, 17(13), 1990; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131990 - 2 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1142

Abstract

The plateaus of north-central Mexico have an arid to semiarid climate and groundwater naturally contaminated with inorganic arsenic (iAs) and fluoride (F). Like other arid and semiarid areas, this region faces great challenges to maintain a safe supply of drinking and irrigation water. Studies conducted in the past few decades on various locations within this region have reported groundwater iAs, F, and nitrate-nitrogen (NO₃-N), and either their source, enrichment processes, health risks, and/or potential water treatments. The relevant findings are analyzed and condensed here to provide an overview of the groundwater situation of the region. Studies identify volcanic rocks (rhyolite) and their weathering products (clays) as the main sources of iAs and F and report that these solutes become enriched through evaporation and residence time. In contrast, NO₃-N is reported as anthropogenic, with the highest concentrations found in large urban centers and in agricultural and livestock farm areas. Health risks are high since the hot spots of contamination correspond to populated areas. Health problems associated with NO₃-N in drinking water may be underestimated. Removal technologies of the contaminants remain at the laboratory or pilot stage, except for the reverse osmosis filtration units fitted to selected wells within the state of Chihuahua. A recent approach to supplying drinking water free of iAs and F to two urban centers consisted of switching from groundwater to surface water. Incipient research currently focuses on the potential repercussions of irrigating crops with As-rich water. The groundwater predicaments concerning contamination, public health impact, and irrigation suitability depicted here can be applied to semiarid areas worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Studies: Assessing the Presence of Nutrients and Pollutants)

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