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Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications
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Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "New Sensors, New Technologies and Machine Learning in Water Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2024) | Viewed by 14967

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Fang Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
Interests: ice mechanics; ice-structure interaction; ice loads; ice navigation; ship performance in ice
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Zhijun Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
Interests: ice physical properties; ice field investigation technology; polar sciences and technology; water ecosystem under ice; physical modeling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Pentti Kujala

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. School of Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
2. School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Interests: full-scale measurements of ice-induced loads and analysis of the ice load statistics; simulation of ship performance in ice; development of advanced structural solutions for ships; development of system-level safety of marine traffic
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Weiping Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Center for Soil and Water Environment Research in the Cold and Arid Regions of the Yellow River Basin, Inner Mongolia University of Science & Technology, Baotou 014010, China
Interests: ice growth and decay in freshwater lakes; ice crystal structure; migration and release of ice-water phase pollution factors; frozen environment and ecology in cold regions; freeze–thaw cycle
Prof. Dr. Shifeng Ding

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, zhenjiang, China
Interests: load prediction of polar vessels and marine structures; analysis and optimization design of ice-strengthened hull structure; analysis of temperature field of polar vessels and LNG carrier; simulation of tank icing; sloshing simulation of LNG carrier; intelligent hull structure technology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are delighted to announce the launch of a Special Issue entitled “Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications”. The study of ice and snow is of paramount significance, not only for earth sciences but also for advancements in engineering and social sciences. Our global climate is undergoing profound changes, including delayed ice formation, thinner ice covers, shifting ice margins, higher ice temperatures, and changing precipitation patterns. Understanding the ice and snow properties becomes imperative for addressing challenges and harnessing opportunities in diverse fields.

This Special Issue aims to comprehensively explore the properties of ice and snow, encompassing their physical, thermal, mechanical, optical, and electrical attributes. Furthermore, it seeks to demonstrate the engineering applications based on in-depth modeling of the physical and mechanical properties of ice and snow. Contributions to theoretical studies, practical applications, remote sensing, investigations, experiments, and numerical modeling related to ice and snow in cold regions are particularly encouraged.

We look forward to your valuable contributions to this Special Issue, which will help us gain a deeper understanding of the properties of ice and snow and their prevailing applications.

Dr. Fang Li
Prof. Dr. Zhijun Li
Prof. Dr. Pentti Kujala
Prof. Dr. Weiping Li
Prof. Dr. Shifeng Ding
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • glacier ice
  • lake ice
  • river ice
  • sea ice
  • ice/snow properties
  • engineering
  • ice–structure interaction
  • remote sensing
  • observations and investigations
  • numerical modeling

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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9 pages, 173 KiB  
Editorial
Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications
by Fang Li, Zhijun Li, Pentti Kujala, Weiping Li and Shifeng Ding
Water 2025, 17(7), 954; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17070954 - 25 Mar 2025
Viewed by 231
Abstract
Ice and snow are essential components of the Earth’s cryosphere, contributing significantly to the global climate system and human civilization [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

19 pages, 6337 KiB  
Article
Optimization of a Snow and Ice Surface Albedo Scheme for Lake Ulansu in the Central Asian Arid Climate Zone
by Xiaowei Cao, Miao Yu, Puzhen Huo, Peng Lu, Bin Cheng, Wei Gao, Xingyu Shi and Lijun Wang
Water 2025, 17(4), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040523 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 489
Abstract
Surface albedo measurements of snow and ice on Lake Ulansu in the Central Asian arid climate zone were conducted during the winter of 2016–2017. Observations were categorized into three stages based on the ice growth and surface condition: bare ice, snow cover, and [...] Read more.
Surface albedo measurements of snow and ice on Lake Ulansu in the Central Asian arid climate zone were conducted during the winter of 2016–2017. Observations were categorized into three stages based on the ice growth and surface condition: bare ice, snow cover, and melting. During the bare ice stage, the mean surface albedo was 0.35 with a decreasing trend due to the accumulation of wind-blown sediment on the ice surface (range: 0.99–1.87 g m−2). Two snowfall events occurred during the snow cover stage, significantly increasing the surface albedo to 0.91. During the melting stage, the albedo decreased at a decay rate of 0.20–0.30/day. Four existing albedo schemes were evaluated but found unsuitable for Lake Ulansu. A new surface albedo scheme was proposed by incorporating the existing albedo schemes with the measured data. This scheme incorporated the effect of sediment content on bare ice albedo for the first time. It demonstrated a modelling efficiency of 0.933 over the entire 3-month period, which was used to evaluate the fit between the predicted and observed values. When validated with albedo observations from other winters, it achieved a modelling efficiency of 0.940. The closer the value is to 1, the better the model’s predictive accuracy, indicating a higher level of reliability in the model’s performance. This scheme has potential applicability to other lakes in the Central Asian arid climate zone, which is characterized by low precipitation, frequent sandstorms, and intense solar radiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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20 pages, 5914 KiB  
Article
An Investigation of the Thickness of Huhenuoer Lake Ice and Its Potential as a Temporary Ice Runway
by Ying Wang, Qiuming Zhao, Bo Zhang, Qingjiang Wang, Peng Lu, Qingkai Wang, Xinghua Bao and Jiahuan He
Water 2025, 17(3), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17030400 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 728
Abstract
The study of ice runways has significant practical importance. Regarding inland lake ice, while little of the practicality of ice runways during the ice formation period was explored in the published articles, the analysis of the time period and suitable locations may be [...] Read more.
The study of ice runways has significant practical importance. Regarding inland lake ice, while little of the practicality of ice runways during the ice formation period was explored in the published articles, the analysis of the time period and suitable locations may be used. This study focused on Huhenuoer Lake, located in Chen Barag Banner in northeastern China. The time-dependent law of ice growth in this lake has been investigated over a study period from 2023 to 2024. Utilizing the drilling approach, the ice thickness, recorded at each site on 29 February 2024, has surpassed 100 cm. On 14 March 2024, the recorded ice thickness at site #2 reached a record high of 139 cm. Second, to assess the project’s ease of use and safety, we used the Stefan equation to model the lake’s ice growth processes, resulting in a fitted Stefan coefficient of 2.202. For safety considerations, the Stefan coefficient used for the construction of the ice runway was set at 1.870. We investigated the distribution of lake ice and concluded that the lake ice runway should be established in the north. We established the relationship between ice thickness, cumulative snowfall, and negative accumulated temperature by integrating the fitting technique with the Stefan model. Utilizing the P-III method, the minimum value of the maximum negative accumulated temperature for the 50-year return period is 2092.46 °C·d, while the maximum cumulative snowfall for the 50-year period is 58.4 mm. We can apply these values to the aforementioned relationship to derive the ice thickness patterns across varying return periods. Finally, the study provides recommendations for the construction of the ice runway at Huhenuoer Lake. This study introduces ice field research and an ice growth model into the analysis of lake ice runway operations to provide technical assistance for ice runways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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15 pages, 6130 KiB  
Article
Investigation on the Excitation Force and Cavitation Evolution of an Ice-Class Propeller in Ice Blockage
by Qiaogao Huang, Sijie Zheng, Han Li, Xing He and Xinming Li
Water 2025, 17(3), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17030295 - 22 Jan 2025
Viewed by 643
Abstract
When an ice-class propeller is operating in an ice-covered environment, as some ice blocks slide along the ship hull in front of the propeller blades, the inflow ahead of the propeller will become non-uniform. Consequently, the excitation force applied to the blades will [...] Read more.
When an ice-class propeller is operating in an ice-covered environment, as some ice blocks slide along the ship hull in front of the propeller blades, the inflow ahead of the propeller will become non-uniform. Consequently, the excitation force applied to the blades will increase and massive cavitation bubbles will be generated. In this paper, a hybrid Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes/Large Eddy Simulation method and Schnerr–Sauer cavitation model are used to investigate the hydrodynamics, excitation force, cavitation evolution and flow field characteristics of the propeller in ice blockage conditions. The results show that the numerical method adopted has a relatively high accuracy and the hydrodynamic error is controlled within 3.0%. At low cavitation numbers, although the blockage distance decreases, the cavitation phenomenon is still severe and the hydrodynamic coefficients hardly increase accordingly. Ice blockage causes a sharp increase in cavitation. When the distance is 0.15 times the diameter, the cavitation area amounts to 20% of the propeller blades. As the advance coefficient grows, the total cavitation area diminishes, while the cavitation area of the blade behind ice does not decrease, resulting in an increment in excitation force. Ice blockage also causes backflow in the wake. At this time, the largest backflow appears at the tip of the blade behind the ice. The higher the advance coefficient, the more significant the high-pressure area of the pressure side and the greater the pressure difference, causing the excitation force to rise sharply. This work offers a positive theoretical basis for the anti-cavitation design and excitation force suppression of propellers operating in icy regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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22 pages, 6110 KiB  
Article
Air–Ice–Water Temperature and Radiation Transfer via Different Surface Coverings in Ice-Covered Qinghai Lake of the Tibetan Plateau
by Ruijia Niu, Lijuan Wen, Chan Wang, Hong Tang and Matti Leppäranta
Water 2025, 17(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020142 - 8 Jan 2025
Viewed by 733
Abstract
There are numerous lakes in the Tibetan Plateau (TP) that significantly impact regional climate and aquatic ecosystems, which often freeze seasonally owing to the high altitude. However, the special warming mechanisms of lake water under ice during the frozen period are poorly understood, [...] Read more.
There are numerous lakes in the Tibetan Plateau (TP) that significantly impact regional climate and aquatic ecosystems, which often freeze seasonally owing to the high altitude. However, the special warming mechanisms of lake water under ice during the frozen period are poorly understood, particularly in terms of solar radiation penetration through lake ice. The limited understanding of these processes has posed challenges to advancing lake models and improving the understanding of air–lake energy exchange during the ice-covered period. To address this, a field experiment was conducted at Qinghai Lake, the largest lake in China, in February 2022 to systematically examine thermal conditions and radiation transfer across air–ice–water interfaces. High-resolution remote sensing technologies (ultrasonic instrument and acoustic Doppler devices) were used to observe the lake surface changes, and MODIS imagery was also used to validate differences in lake surface conditions. Results showed that the water temperature under the ice warmed steadily before the ice melted. The observation period was divided into three stages based on surface condition: snow stage, sand stage, and bare ice stage. In the snow and sand stages, the lake water temperature was lower due to reduced solar radiation penetration caused by high surface reflectance (61% for 2 cm of snow) and strong absorption by 8 cm of sand (absorption-to-transmission ratio of 0.96). In contrast, during the bare ice stage, a low reflectance rate (17%) and medium absorption-to-transmission ratio (0.86) allowed 11% of solar radiation to penetrate the ice, reaching 11.70 W·m−2, which increased the water temperature across the under-ice layer, with an extinction coefficient for lake water of 0.39 (±0.03) m−1. Surface coverings also significantly influenced ice temperature. During the bare ice stage, the ice exhibited the lowest average temperature and the greatest diurnal variations. This was attributed to the highest daytime radiation absorption, as indicated by a light extinction coefficient of 5.36 (±0.17) m−1, combined with the absence of insulation properties at night. This study enhances understanding of the characteristics of water/ice temperature and air–ice–water solar radiation transfer through effects of different ice coverings (snow, sand, and ice) in Qinghai Lake and provides key optical radiation parameters and in situ observations for the refinement of TP lake models, especially in the ice-covered period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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17 pages, 8716 KiB  
Article
An Experimental Investigation of the Flexural Strength and Fracture Toughness of Granular Snow Ice Under a Three-Point Bending Test
by Hongwei Han, Wanyun Li, Yu Li, Zhi Liu and Xingchao Liu
Water 2024, 16(23), 3358; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16233358 - 22 Nov 2024
Viewed by 947
Abstract
Ice is a common natural phenomenon in cold areas, which plays an important role in the construction of cold areas and the design of artificial ice rinks. To supplement our knowledge of ice mechanics, this paper investigates the mechanical properties of granular snow [...] Read more.
Ice is a common natural phenomenon in cold areas, which plays an important role in the construction of cold areas and the design of artificial ice rinks. To supplement our knowledge of ice mechanics, this paper investigates the mechanical properties of granular snow ice. The factors influencing the flexural strength of granular snow ice are analyzed through a three-point bending test. It is found that flexural strength is affected by strain rate. At low strain rates, flexural strength increases with increasing strain rate, whereas at high strain rates, flexural strength decreases with increasing strain rate. As temperature decreases, the flexural strength value of ice increases, but its brittleness becomes more pronounced, indicating that the strain rate corresponding to the maximum flexural strength is lower. Within the test temperature range, the tough-brittle transition range is from 6.67 × 10−5 s−1 to 3.11 × 10−4 s−1. At −5 °C, the strain rate corresponding to the maximum bending strength is 3.11 × 10−4 s−1, while at −10 °C, it is only 6.67 × 10−5 s−1. Flexural strength is influenced by crystal structure. At −20 °C, the average flexural strength of granular snow ice is 2.85 MPa, compared to 1.93 MPa for columnar ice at the same temperature. Through observation, we found that there are straight cracks and oblique cracks. The fracture toughness of granular snow ice was investigated by cutting prefabricated cracks at the bottom of the ice beam and employing a three-point bending device. It is found that fracture toughness decreases with increasing strain rate. Temperature also affects granular snow ice. At −15 °C, fracture toughness is 181.60 kPa·m1/2, but at −6 °C, it decreases to 147.28 kPa·m1/2. However, at varying temperatures and strain rates, there is no significant difference in the fracture patterns of ice samples, which predominantly develop upward along the prefabricated cracks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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15 pages, 5207 KiB  
Article
Threshold Ranges of Multiphase Components from Natural Ice CT Images Based on Watershed Algorithm
by Shengbo Hu, Qingkai Wang, Chunjiang Li and Zhijun Li
Water 2024, 16(22), 3330; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223330 - 19 Nov 2024
Viewed by 761
Abstract
The multiphase components of natural ice contain gas, ice, unfrozen water, sediment and brine. X-ray computed tomography (CT) analysis of ice multiphase components has the advantage of high precision, non-destructiveness and visualization; however, it is limited by the segmentation thresholds. Due to the [...] Read more.
The multiphase components of natural ice contain gas, ice, unfrozen water, sediment and brine. X-ray computed tomography (CT) analysis of ice multiphase components has the advantage of high precision, non-destructiveness and visualization; however, it is limited by the segmentation thresholds. Due to the proximity of the CT value ranges of gas, ice, unfrozen water, sediment and brine within the samples, there is uncertainty in the artificial determination of the CT image segmentation thresholds, as well as unsuitability of the global threshold segmentation methods. In order to improve the accuracy of multi-threshold segmentation in CT images, a CT system was used to scan the Yellow River ice, the Wuliangsuhai lake ice and the Arctic sea ice. The threshold ranges of multiphase components within the ice were determined by watershed algorithm to construct a high-precision three-dimensional ice model. The results indicated that CT combined with watershed algorithm was an efficient and non-destructive method for obtaining microscopic information within ice, which accurately segmented the ice into multiphase components such as gas, ice, unfrozen water, sediment, and brine. The gas CT values of the Yellow River ice, the Wuliangsuhai lake ice and the Arctic sea ice ranged from −1024 Hu~−107 Hu, −1024 Hu~−103 Hu, and −1024 Hu~−160 Hu, respectively. The ice CT values of the Yellow River ice, the Wuliangsuhai lake ice and the Arctic sea ice ranged from −103 Hu~−50 Hu, −100 Hu~−38 Hu, −153 Hu~−51 Hu. The unfrozen water CT values of the Yellow River ice and the Wuliangsuhai lake ice ranged from −8 Hu~18 Hu, −8 Hu~13 Hu. The sediment CT values of the Yellow River ice and the Wuliangsuhai lake ice ranged from 20 Hu~3071 Hu, 20 Hu~3071 Hu, and the brine CT values of the Arctic sea ice ranged from −6 Hu~3071 Hu. The errors between the three-dimensional ice model divided by threshold ranges and measured sediment content were less than 0.003 g/cm3, which verified the high accuracy of the established microscopic model. It provided a scientific basis for ice engineering, ice remote sensing, and ice disaster prevention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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18 pages, 10762 KiB  
Article
Method for Producing Columnar Ice in Laboratory and Its Application
by Yujia Zhang, Zuoqin Qian and Weilong Huang
Water 2024, 16(18), 2558; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182558 - 10 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 880
Abstract
This study presents the design of a small open-circuit wind tunnel for laboratory use and a method for preparing columnar ice. The ice formation process was analyzed in terms of temperature and ice thickness variations under varying environmental temperatures and wind speeds. Observations [...] Read more.
This study presents the design of a small open-circuit wind tunnel for laboratory use and a method for preparing columnar ice. The ice formation process was analyzed in terms of temperature and ice thickness variations under varying environmental temperatures and wind speeds. Observations revealed that as wind speed increased, the grain size of the columnar ice decreased. Key findings include the following: (1) the selection and validation of two cubic arcs for the wind tunnel contraction section, achieving an acceleration ratio of 6.7–6.8 and stable wind speeds of 1–10 m/s; (2) real-time temperature monitoring indicated rapid cooling before freezing and slower cooling post-freezing, with lower ambient temperatures and higher wind speeds accelerating the icing process; (3) the −1/2 power of grain size was found to be positively correlated with wind speed; and (4) the method’s feasibility for studying mechanical properties of polar columnar ice was confirmed. This technique offers a controlled approach for producing columnar ice in the laboratory, facilitating comprehensive research on ice properties and providing a foundation for future studies on the mechanical behavior of ice under windy polar conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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26 pages, 7359 KiB  
Article
Volume-Mediated Lake-Ice Phenology in Southwest Alaska Revealed through Remote Sensing and Survival Analysis
by Peter B. Kirchner and Michael P. Hannam
Water 2024, 16(16), 2309; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162309 - 16 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1516
Abstract
Lakes in Southwest Alaska are a critical habitat to many species and provide livelihoods to many communities through subsistence fishing, transportation, and recreation. Consistent and reliable data are rarely available for even the largest lakes in this sparsely populated region, so data-intensive methods [...] Read more.
Lakes in Southwest Alaska are a critical habitat to many species and provide livelihoods to many communities through subsistence fishing, transportation, and recreation. Consistent and reliable data are rarely available for even the largest lakes in this sparsely populated region, so data-intensive methods utilizing long-term observations and physical data are not possible. To address this, we used optical remote sensing (MODIS 2002–2016) to establish a phenology record for key lakes in the region, and we modeled lake-ice formation and breakup for the years 1982–2022 using readily available temperature and solar radiation-based predictors in a survival modeling framework that accounted for years when lakes did not freeze. Results were validated with observations recorded at two lakes, and stratification measured by temperature arrays in three others. Our model provided good predictions (mean absolute error, freeze-over = 11 days, breakup = 16 days). Cumulative freeze-degree days and cumulative thaw-degree days were the strongest predictors of freeze-over and breakup, respectively. Lake volume appeared to mediate lake-ice phenology, as ice-cover duration tended to be longer and less variable in lower-volume lakes. Furthermore, most lakes < 10 km3 showed a trend toward shorter ice seasons of −1 to −6 days/decade, while most higher-volume lakes showed undiscernible or positive trends of up to 2 days/decade. Lakes > 20 km3 also showed a greater number of years when freeze-over was neither predicted by our model (37 times, n = 200) nor observed in the MODIS record (19 times, n = 60). While three lakes in our study did not commonly freeze throughout our study period, four additional high-volume lakes began experiencing years in which they did not freeze, starting in the late 1990s. Our study provides a novel approach to lake-ice prediction and an insight into the future of lake ice in the Boreal region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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13 pages, 4936 KiB  
Article
Construction of Sea Surface Temperature Forecasting Model for Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea Coastal Stations Based on Long Short-Time Memory Neural Network
by Yan Jiao, Ge Li, Peng Zhao, Xue Chen, Yongzheng Cao, Guiyan Liu, Lingjuan Wu, Xin Xu, Di Fu, Ruoxue Xin and Chengzhen Ji
Water 2024, 16(16), 2307; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162307 - 16 Aug 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1087
Abstract
In order to address the issue of large errors in predicting SST along the coast using numerical models, this study adopts LSTM, a deep learning method, to develop optimal SST prediction models. The Xiaomaidao Station is selected as an example, and then the [...] Read more.
In order to address the issue of large errors in predicting SST along the coast using numerical models, this study adopts LSTM, a deep learning method, to develop optimal SST prediction models. The Xiaomaidao Station is selected as an example, and then the method is then extended to 14 coastal stations along the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea. The results show that the SST prediction model based on LSTM effectively improves forecast accuracy. The mean absolute errors for 1–3-day SST forecasts of the optimal model at Xiaomaidao Station are 0.20 °C, 0.27 °C, and 0.31 °C, and the root mean square errors are 0.28 °C, 0.36 °C, and 0.41 °C, respectively, representing an average reduction of 78% compared to those of the numerical model. Extending this approach to other forecasting sites along the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea results in an average 61% reduction in forecast error when compared with the numerical model. Furthermore, it is found that utilizing an LSTM model can significantly save computational resources and improve the forecasting efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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19 pages, 7326 KiB  
Article
A Study on the Ice Resistance Characteristics of Ships in Rafted Ice Based on the Circumferential Crack Method
by Jiayu Huang, Feng Diao, Shifeng Ding, Sen Han, Pentti Kujala and Li Zhou
Water 2024, 16(6), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16060854 - 15 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1699
Abstract
In previous studies of ship–ice interactions, most studies focused on ship–level ice interactions, overlooking potential rafted ice conditions in extreme ice conditions. The purpose of this study is to develop a numerical model for predicting ship resistance in rafted ice regions. Numerical modeling [...] Read more.
In previous studies of ship–ice interactions, most studies focused on ship–level ice interactions, overlooking potential rafted ice conditions in extreme ice conditions. The purpose of this study is to develop a numerical model for predicting ship resistance in rafted ice regions. Numerical modeling of rafted ice was carried out using preset grid cells. By comparing the model test results, the accuracy and reliability of the numerical model are verified. On this basis, we undertook the analysis of the impacts of different ice thicknesses, ship speeds, bending strengths, and crushing strengths on the ice resistance of ships under level and rafted ice conditions. The results show that the ice resistance of ships is significantly higher than that of rafted ice under the condition of level ice; however, level ice and rafted ice have different effects on ship ice resistance. Compared with level ice, the ice resistance of ships navigating in rafted ice is more concentrated. The findings of the present research can serve as a technical reference for studies focused on predicting ship resistance in rafted ice regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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28 pages, 8939 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Meteorological Element Variation Characteristics in the Heilongjiang (Amur) River Basin
by Qi Yue, Gao Yu, Yu Miao and Yang Zhou
Water 2024, 16(4), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16040521 - 6 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1886
Abstract
Located in the Heilongjiang (Amur) River in north-east Asia, spanning four countries, plays a crucial role as an international border river, and its meteorological changes significantly impact the variation in water resources in the basin. This study utilizes daily average temperature and precipitation [...] Read more.
Located in the Heilongjiang (Amur) River in north-east Asia, spanning four countries, plays a crucial role as an international border river, and its meteorological changes significantly impact the variation in water resources in the basin. This study utilizes daily average temperature and precipitation data from 282 meteorological stations in the Heilongjiang (Amur) River Basin and its surrounding areas for the period 1980–2022. The analysis employs spatial interpolation, change point testing, and model construction prediction methods. The results indicate a significant increasing trend in both overall temperature and precipitation changes within the Heilongjiang (Amur) River Basin. At the spatial scale, the annual warming rate increases gradually from the southeastern coastal region to the northwestern plateau region, while the rate of precipitation increase decreases from the southern area towards its surroundings. Temporally, the warming amplitude during the growing season decreases gradually from east to west, and the trend in precipitation changes during the growing season aligns with the overall annual precipitation trend. During the non-growing season, the warming trend shows a decrease in the plains and an increase in the plateau, while precipitation increase concentrates in the central and southern plains, and precipitation decrease predominantly occurs in the northwestern plateau region. Temperature and precipitation change points occurred in the years 2001 and 2012, respectively. In precipitation prediction, the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) model exhibits higher accuracy, with R (Pearson correlation coefficient) and NSE (Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient) values approaching 1 and lower NRSME values. This study provides a research foundation for the rational development and utilization of water resources in the Heilongjiang (Amur) River Basin and offers valuable insights for research on climate change characteristics in large transboundary river systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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Review

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15 pages, 7287 KiB  
Review
A Review on the Driving Mechanism of the Spring Algal Bloom in Lakes Using Freezing and Thawing Processes
by Ziyue Zhao, Xuemei Liu, Yanfeng Wu, Guangxin Zhang, Changlei Dai, Guoli Qiao and Yinghui Ma
Water 2024, 16(2), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020257 - 11 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2266
Abstract
Spring algal blooms in mid–high-latitude lakes are facing serious challenges such as earlier outbreaks, longer duration, and increasing frequency under the dual pressure of climate warming and human activities, which threaten the health of freshwater ecosystems and water security. At present, the freeze-thaw [...] Read more.
Spring algal blooms in mid–high-latitude lakes are facing serious challenges such as earlier outbreaks, longer duration, and increasing frequency under the dual pressure of climate warming and human activities, which threaten the health of freshwater ecosystems and water security. At present, the freeze-thaw processes is the key to distinguishing spring algal blooms in mid- to high-latitude lakes from low-latitude lakes. Based on the visualization and an analysis of the literature in the WOS database during 2007–2023, we clarified the driving mechanism of the freeze-thaw process (freeze-thaw, freeze-up, and thawing) on spring algal bloom in lakes by describing the evolution of the freeze-thaw processes on the nutrient migration and transformation, water temperature, lake transparency and dissolved oxygen, and physiological characteristics of algae between shallow lakes and deep lakes. We found that the complex phosphorus transformation process during the frozen period can better explain the spring-algal-bloom phenomenon compared to nitrogen. The dominant species of lake algae also undergo transformation during the freeze-thaw process. On this basis, the response mechanism of spring algal blooms in lakes to future climate change has been sorted out. The general framework of “principles analysis, model construction, simulation and prediction, assessment and management” and the prevention strategy for dealing with spring algal bloom in lakes have been proposed, for which we would like to provide scientific support and reference for the comprehensive prevention and control of spring algal bloom in lakes under the freezing and thawing processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ice and Snow Properties and Their Applications)
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