Vision

No animal can so effectively camouflage in such a wide range of environments as the octopus. Thanks to their highly malleable skin, they are capable of adapting their body patterns to the brightness and texture of their immediate environment, and they often seemingly match the colour of background objects. However, octopuses are colour-blind as their eyes have only one type of visual pigment. Therefore, chromatophores in their skin are likely to respond to changes in brightness, not chromaticity. To determine whether octopuses actually match background colours, we used a SpectraScan^® PR-655 spectroradiometer to measure the reflectance spectra of Octopus tetricus skin in captivity. The spectra were compared with those of green algae, brown algae, and sponges—all of these being colourful objects commonly found in the octopus’s natural environment. Even though we show that octopuses change both lightness and chromaticity, allowing them to potentially camouflage in a wide range of backgrounds in an effective manner, the overall octopus colours did not reach the same level of saturation compared to some background objects. Spectra were then modelled under the visual systems of four potential octopus predators: one dichromatic fish (Heller’s barracuda), two trichromatic fish (blue-spotted stingray and two-spotted red snapper), and one tetrachromatic bird (wedge-tailed shearwater). We show that octopuses are able to match certain background colours for some visual systems. How a colour-blind animal is capable of colour-matching is still unknown. Full article

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) is a main regulator of cell differentiation, cell migration and angiogenesis in normal and abnormal conjunctiva epithelia, but specific mechanisms of its aberrant expression are yet to be investigated. In the present study, we investigated FGF-2 protein expression within several pterygia. Using a liquid-based cytology assay, we obtained cell specimens from pterygia and healthy tissues directly from patients. A combination of immunocytochemistry followed by digital image analysis showed significant overexpression of FGF-2 in all the examined pterygia. In 30/60 (50%) cases there were high levels of staining intensity, whereas in the remaining 30/60 (50%) cases there were moderate levels of expression. FGF-2 levels of the control group were significantly lower in comparison with the pterygia group. There was no significant correlation between FGF-2 levels and either sex or location of the pterygium. FGF-2 levels had a significant correlation with morphological characteristics of the pterygia. More specifically, FGF-2 levels were significantly higher in the pterygia with a fleshy morphology. Interestingly, recurrent lesions demonstrated high expression levels. An overexpression of FGF-2 has been observed frequently in pterygia, where it may play a crucial role in determining the lesion’s progression. FGF-2 upregulation correlates with the morphology of pterygia and its tendency to recur. Cell spot analysis based on liquid-based cytology is a simple, yet effective, method for detecting a broad spectrum of protein markers and could be useful in analyzing potential pterygia patient samples. Full article

Since it was first launched in 2001, the Scottish Vision Group (SVG) has been a key meeting for vision scientists in Scotland, and has attracted vision scientists from the United Kingdom, Europe and beyond. This small conference is held annually at different places in Scotland. Its friendly atmosphere and stunning Scottish sceneries provide a great environment for relaxed scientific discussions. In particular, it is an excellent opportunity for scientists at an early stage of their career to give a talk about their work. The 2022 edition of SVG was held in St Leonard’s Hall at the University of Edinburgh. The meeting started with a panel discussion on camouflage led by Prof Nick Scott-Samuel (University of Bristol), Dr George Lovell (Abertay University) and Dr Rebecca Sharman (Abertay University). Research into camouflage has expanded remarkably over the last decade or so, with interdisciplinarity proving to be a key feature for progress. The discussion focussed on the different types of objectives and research techniques that are prominent in the field. The round table was sponsored by Meta Reality Labs. In the keynote lecture, sponsored by MDPI Vision, Prof Ute Leonards (University of Bristol) discussed the outcomes of her research programme investigating the crosstalk between visual cognition research and locomotion research. The outcomes of this Gibsonian approach do not just provide important insights into active vision but also outline the promising possibilities of sustainable urban design inspired by vision sciences. The rest of the conference was dedicated to talks on a variety of topics, including, but not limited to, attention, eye movements, visual search, motion perception, multisensory perception, colour and 3D vision. We present a selection of these abstracts. An associated Special Issue captures in fuller detail some of the research presented at SVG’s 2022 edition. Full article

Male guppies (Poecilia reticulata) have multiple colored spots and perform courtship displays near the edges of streams in Trinidad in shallow water flowing through rainforest. Depending upon the orientation of the pair, the female sees the male displays against gravel or other stream bed substrates or against the spacelight—the roughly uniform light coming from the water column away from the bank. We observed courting pairs in two adjacent natural streams and noted the directions of each male display. We found that the female sees the male more often against spacelight than against gravel when females either faced the spacelight from the opposite bank or from downstream, or both. Visual modelling using natural substrate reflectances and field light measurements showed higher chromatic contrast of males against spacelight than against substrates independent of the two ambient light environments used during displays, but achromatic contrast depended upon the ambient light habitat. This suggests that courtship involves both chromatic and achromatic contrast. We conclude that the orientation of courting pairs and the ambient light spectrum should be accounted for in studies of mate choice, because the visual background and light affect visibility, and these differ with orientation. Full article

The study assessed the contact lens prescribing patterns and associated factors in a university optometry clinic in Trinidad and Tobago. The data relating to habitual or new contact lens (CL) prescribing patterns among wearers over a two-year period were reviewed. Pearson’s chi-squared test and logistic regression models were used to analyze the findings. The Hosmer–Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test was used to examine the model calibration. A total of 243 CL fits were analyzed, and the Homeshow–Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test indicated a good fit (χ² (7) = 7.296, p = 0.399). The mean age of lens wearers was 29.6 ± 12.4 (mean ± SD); the majority, 155 (63.8 %) of whom, were 21 to 40 years old. Most lenses were fitted on females (64.2% of fits overall) and about half of the wearers (n = 122, 50.2%) were prescribed lenses for cosmetic purposes. Conventional soft CL were the most prescribed modality of wear, accounting for 129 (53.1%) of the fits. Age from 21 to 40 years was the predictor of lens type prescribed, and those in that age range were four times more likely to be prescribed soft lenses compared to other ages. The patterns of CL prescribing in a university optometry clinic in Trinidad and Tobago are similar to the global market trends with slight variations. Full article

Ahuna Mons is a 4 km particular geologic feature on the surface of Ceres, of possibly cryovolcanic origin. The special characteristics of Ahuna Mons are also interesting in regard of its surrounding area, especially for the big crater beside it. This crater possesses similarities with Ahuna Mons including diameter, age, morphology, etc. Under the cognitive psychology perspective and using current computer vision models, we analyzed these two features on Ceres for comparison and pattern-recognition similarities. Speeded up robust features (SURF), oriented features from accelerated segment test (FAST), rotated binary robust independent elementary features (BRIEF), Canny edge detector, and scale invariant feature transform (SIFT) algorithms were employed as feature-detection algorithms, avoiding human cognitive bias. The 3D analysis of images of both features’ (Ahuna Mons and Crater B) characteristics is discussed. Results showed positive results for these algorithms about the similarities of both features. Canny edge resulted as the most efficient algorithm. The 3D objects of Ahuna Mons and Crater B showed good-fitting results. Discussion is provided about the results of this computer-vision-techniques experiment for Ahuna Mons. Results showed the potential for the computer vision models in combination with 3D imaging to be free of bias and to detect potential geoengineered formations in the future. This study also brings forward the potential problem of both human and cognitive bias in artificial-intelligence-based models and the risks for the task of searching for technosignatures. Full article

Perceptual biases can be interpreted as adverse consequences of optimal processes which otherwise improve system performance. The review presented here focuses on the investigation of inaccuracies in multisensory perception by focusing on the perception of verticality and self-motion, where the vestibular sensory modality has a prominent role. Perception of verticality indicates how the system processes gravity. Thus, it represents an indirect measurement of vestibular perception. Head tilts can lead to biases in perceived verticality, interpreted as the influence of a vestibular prior set at the most common orientation relative to gravity (i.e., upright), useful for improving precision when upright (e.g., fall avoidance). Studies on the perception of verticality across development and in the presence of blindness show that prior acquisition is mediated by visual experience, thus unveiling the fundamental role of visuo-vestibular interconnections across development. Such multisensory interactions can be behaviorally tested with cross-modal aftereffect paradigms which test whether adaptation in one sensory modality induces biases in another, eventually revealing an interconnection between the tested sensory modalities. Such phenomena indicate the presence of multisensory neural mechanisms that constantly function to calibrate self-motion dedicated sensory modalities with each other as well as with the environment. Thus, biases in vestibular perception reveal how the brain optimally adapts to environmental requests, such as spatial navigation and steady changes in the surroundings. Full article

The new Sans Forgetica (SF) typeface creates perceptual disfluency by breaking up parts of letters vertically, horizontally, or diagonally, thereby fragmentizing them. While patterns of fragmentization are consistent for each unique letter, they are not uniform across letters. With Gestalt principles such as good continuation and perceptual completion being more difficult to implement in these settings, viewers may need to depend on context clues to identify words. This may be a desirable difficulty and improve memory for those words. Here, we investigate whether SF improves recognition of studied words. In Experiment 1, participants studied words in Arial and SF and completed old-new recognition tests where words retained their study fonts. In Experiment 2, we investigated the potential for context reinstatement—testing studied words in their studied fonts or the other font. Hit rate and discrimination sensitivities (d’) were analyzed for both experiments. Participants had significantly better recognition (hit rate) in SF than in Arial (Exp 1) and significantly higher discrimination sensitivities (d’) when words were tested in SF than in Arial (Exp 2). However, further examination of these results (e.g., marginally more response bias with SF than with Arial in Exp 1) lead us to hold reservations for the benefit of SF on word memory and conjecture that SF, at best, plays a limited role in improving recognition of studied words. Full article

This paper presents the results of a study that used a speeded counting task to adjudicate between two competing theories of how perceptual representations of visual objects are derived. Boolean map (BM) theory assumes that there are strict limits on conscious awareness, such that we only have serial access to features on the same dimension (e.g., red and green). This theory contrasts with views that emphasize the early grouping of features, and which assume that feature processing is interactive and underpins figure/ground segregation as a necessary precursor to object perception. To test between these theories, we report performance in a speeded counting task in which participants were asked to judge which of two shapes was more prevalent. Displays contained squares and circles that appeared in either of two colors, with color and shape distinctions either perfectly correlated (i.e., compatible) or not (i.e., incompatible). BM theory predicts no influence of the relative coincidence of color and shape on the identification of the more prevalent shape. In contrast, grouping theory predicts that performance will be better when the color/shape distinction is compatible than when it is incompatible. Our data strongly support the grouping theory predictions. We conclude that the primary constraints on how visual objects are accessed are the number and kind of groupings that are recovered, not the number of feature maps consulted. Full article

Ocular surface squamous neoplasia (OSSN) has a high incidence in the southern hemisphere. This prospective study evaluated the incidence of OSSN in the Waikato region of New Zealand. All patients presenting with pterygium or conjunctival lesions in the Waikato region in 2020 were included. All surgeons in the region were asked to send all conjunctival and corneal specimens excised for histopathologic examination. The primary outcome measure was the incidence of OSSN. Eighty-eight percent of all excised specimens were sent for histopathologic examination. Of the 185 excised lesions sent for histopathological assessment, 18 (10%) were reported as OSSN. Patients were on average 69.4 years of age (standard deviation, SD = 6.9), predominantly male (78%), and of New Zealand-European ethnicity (89%). The OSSN annual incidence was 3.67/100,000/year. Histology grades included conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)-I (25%), CIN-II (25%), CIN-III (12.5%), carcinoma in situ (25%), and invasive squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) (12.5%). One patient with invasive SCC required exenteration. This study identified a high incidence rate of OSSN and is the first prospective study to analyze OSSN epidemiology in New Zealand. Full article

When searching a visual image that contains multiple target objects of interest, human subjects often show a satisfaction of search (SOS) effect, whereby if the subjects find one target, they are less likely to find additional targets in the image. Reducing SOS or, equivalently, subsequent search miss (SSM), is of great significance in many real-world situations where it is of paramount importance to find all targets in a given image, not just one. However, studies have shown that even highly trained and experienced subjects, such as expert radiologists, are subject to SOS. Here, using the detection of camouflaged objects (or camouflage-breaking) as an illustrative case, we demonstrate that when naïve subjects are trained to detect camouflaged objects more effectively, it has the side effect of reducing subjects’ SOS. We tested subjects in the SOS task before and after they were trained in camouflage-breaking. During SOS testing, subjects viewed naturalistic scenes that contained zero, one, or two targets, depending on the image. As expected, before camouflage-training, subjects showed a strong SOS effect, whereby if they had found a target with relatively high visual saliency in a given image, they were less likely to have also found a lower-saliency target when one existed in the image. Subjects were then trained in the camouflage-breaking task to criterion using non-SOS images, i.e., camouflage images that contained zero or one target. Surprisingly, the trained subjects no longer showed significant levels of SOS. This reduction was specific to the particular background texture in which the subjects received camouflage training; subjects continued to show significant SOS when tested using a different background texture in which they did not receive camouflage training. A separate experiment showed that the reduction in SOS was not attributable to non-specific exposure or practice effects. Together, our results demonstrate that perceptual expertise can, in principle, reduce SOS, even when the perceptual training does not specifically target SOS reduction. Full article

Performing multiple tasks in parallel is detrimental to performance, a phenomenon generically referred to as dual-task interference (DTi). Several variables can modulate DTi at the individual level, and increasing age is typically described as negatively affecting response costs. In this study, we investigated, in 252 healthy adults aged between 50 and 89 years, how age modulates the detrimental effect of DTi during the encoding of images. We combined a visual memory task and a sustained attention task (i.e., an auditory version of the continuous performance task, ACPT) in three separate blocks. In the first block, participants had to perform a four-alternative forced-choice recognition of previously memorized images without having attended to ACPT sounds during the encoding. In the second block, during memorization, participants had to press a response key when detecting the letter “X” within a stream of letters (Low Load). In the third block, they had to respond only when the letter “X” was preceded by the letter “A” (High Load). The results showed that overall performance linearly decreased with age. In contrast with our predictions, DTi was stable across different ages. Finally, using a cluster-based approach, we found that participants who paid the highest costs when dual-tasking also demonstrated, on a self-administered cognitive screening significantly lower scores than peers. These new types of tests, which ask for concurrent task performance, might become useful for detecting outlier performance that might anticipate or correlate with aging–related cognitive decline. Full article

The objective of this study was to determine whether vision-occluded progressive resistance training would increase upper-extremity movement performance using the one-repetition maximum (1-RM) bench press. Participants (n = 57) were recruited from a historically black college and university (HBCU), cross-matched by sex, age (±1 year), 1-RM (±2.27 kg), 1-RM/weight (±0.1), and 1-RM/lean mass ratio (±0.1), and randomly assigned to either the experimental group (vision occluded) or the control group. Participants performed resistance training for 6 weeks prior to beginning the study, and 1-RM was assessed the week prior to the beginning of the study. Weight and body composition were measured using a BOD POD. Of the 57 participants who started the study, 34 completed the study (Experimental = 16, Control = 18) and were reassessed the week after completing the 6-week-long training protocol. Using a combination of Mann–Whitney U and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, we found that when accounting for changes in lean muscle mass, individuals who trained with their vision occluded reported significantly greater improvements in 1-RM strength compared to those who did not (p < 0.05). The findings from our study suggest that vision-occluded progressive resistance training increases upper-extremity performance when assessed using the bench press. These findings may have significant practical implications in both sports and rehabilitation, as these techniques may be used to enhance performance in athletes and/or improve rehabilitation effectiveness. Full article

Since 2020, the COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) has quickly become a worldwide health problem. Ophthalmologists must deal with symptoms as well. For the positive detection in the conjunctival sac swab in COVID-19 patients hospitalized in Slovakia during March 2021 in four hospital centers, we used a test based on a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In a group of 484 patients, 264 males (55%) and 220 females (45%) with clinical symptoms were identified with COVID-19 as a clinical diagnosis. The PCR test swab results from the conjunctival sac taken on the same day were positive in 58 patients (12%), 31 males (with a mean age of 74.6 ± 13.59 years) and 27 females (with a mean age of 70.63 ± 14.17 years); negative in 417 patients (86%); and 9 patients (2%) had an unclear result. The cycle threshold values comparing the nasopharynx and conjunctiva were also different in the group of all patients divided by age and gender. In COVID-19 patients the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) was detectable using PCR test in the nasopharynx but also in the conjunctival sac swab, where the positivity rate was only 12%. Full article

The aim of the study was to assess various retinal vessel parameters of diabetes mellitus (DM) patients and their correlations with systemic factors in type 2 DM. A retrospective exploratory study in which 21 pairs of baseline and follow-up images of patients affected by DM were randomly chosen from the Sankara Nethralaya–Diabetic Retinopathy Study (SN DREAMS) I and II datasets. Patients’ fundus was photographed, and the diagnosis was made based on Klein classification. Vessel thickness parameters were generated using a web-based retinal vascular analysis platform called VASP. The thickness changes between the baseline and follow-up images were computed and normalized with the actual thicknesses of baseline images. The majority of parameters showed 10~20% changes over time. Vessel width in zone C for the second vein was significantly reduced from baseline to follow-up, which showed positive correlations with systolic blood pressure and serum high-density lipoproteins. Fractal dimension for all vessels in zones B and C and fractal dimension for vein in zones A, B and C showed a minimal increase from baseline to follow-up, which had a linear relationship with diastolic pressure, mean arterial pressure, serum triglycerides (p < 0.05). Lacunarity for all vessels and veins in zones A, B and C showed a minimal decrease from baseline to follow-up which had a negative correlation with pulse pressure and positive correlation with serum triglycerides (p < 0.05). The vessel widths for the first and second arteries significantly increased from baseline to follow-up and had an association with high-density lipoproteins, glycated haemoglobin A1C, serum low-density lipoproteins and total serum cholesterol. The central reflex intensity ratio for the second artery was significantly decreased from baseline to follow-up, and positive correlations were noted with serum triglyceride, serum low-density lipoproteins and total serum cholesterol. The coefficients for branches in zones B and C artery and the junctional exponent deviation for the artery in zone A decreased from baseline to follow-up showed positive correlations with serum triglycerides, serum low-density lipoproteins and total serum cholesterol. Identifying early microvascular changes in diabetic patients will allow for earlier intervention, improve visual outcomes and prevent vision loss. Full article

We tested if the misapplication of perceptual constancy mechanisms might explain the perceived misalignment of the oblique lines in the Poggendorff illusion. Specifically, whether these mechanisms might treat the rectangle in the middle portion of the Poggendorff stimulus as an occluder in front of one long line appearing on either side, causing an apparent decrease in the rectangle’s width and an apparent increase in the misalignment of the oblique lines. The study aimed to examine these possibilities by examining the effects of adding pictorial depth cues. In experiments 1 and 2, we presented a central rectangle composed of either large or small bricks to determine if this manipulation would change the perceived alignment of the oblique lines and the perceived width of the central rectangle, respectively. The experiments demonstrated no changes that would support a misapplication of perceptual constancy in driving the illusion, despite some evidence of perceptual size rescaling of the central rectangle. In experiment 3, we presented Poggendorff stimuli in front and at the back of a corridor background rich in texture and linear perspective depth cues to determine if adding these cues would affect the Poggendorff illusion. The central rectangle was physically large and small when presented in front and at the back of the corridor, respectively. The strength of the Poggendorff illusion varied as a function of the physical size of the central rectangle, and, contrary to our predictions, the addition of pictorial depth cues in both the central rectangle and the background decreased rather than increased the strength of the illusion. The implications of these results with regards to different theories are discussed. It could be the case that the illusion depends on both low-level and cognitive mechanisms and that deleterious effects occur on the former when the latter ascribes more certainty to the oblique lines being the same line receding into the distance. Full article

The Navajo Nation is the largest Native American reservation by area and citizenship. The study sought to provide the first large-scale examination of ocular pathology within this population. A retrospective review of all Navajo patients seen at Moran Eye Center Navajo Nation Outreach Clinics from 2013 to 2021 for demographics, visual acuity, refractive, and eye pressure data was undergone. Further variables included comorbidity and eye diagnoses among patients at these clinics. Results: First-time patient visits totaled 2251 from 2013 to 2021. The median age was 53 (range, 18 to 92), and clinics had a predominance of female patients (1387:864). Among patients presenting without glasses, 20.67% (198/958), 9.71% (93/958), and 3.13% (30/958) had mild visual impairment (VI), moderate to severe VI, and blindness, respectively. Cataracts were the most common cause of blindness in these patients (40%, 12/30) and the need for glasses was the second most common cause (33%, 10/30). From 2016 to 2021, 17.71% (48/271) of diabetic patients were diagnosed with diabetic retinopathy (DR). Within the subset of Navajo patients that presented without any correction, 73% of bilateral blindness was preventable via glasses prescription or cataract surgery. This study comments on questions of equitable care for Navajo patients. Full article

Background: To determine efficacy of two lacrimal substitutes on signs and symptoms of ocular surface disease after phacoemulsification; to determine impact of surgery on patients’ vision related quality of life. Monocentric, randomised, physician blinded, three parallel groups clinical trial. Design and Methods: Patients in the operative list for phacoemulsification have been screened for eligibility; they underwent (at time 0, 15, 45 and 90 days): slit lamp examination; tear film break-up time (BUT); corneal staining; tear volume; 25-item National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire (NEI-VFQ); Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI). Treatments to be compared were: 1. standard of care-SOC (lomefloxacine and tobramicine/dexamethasone fixed combination 4 times a day for 2 weeks), 2. SOC + carboxymethylcellulose sodium 0.5% and glycerin 0.9%, 3. SOC + Sodium Hyaluronate 0.15%. Study treatment started at T15. Groups were compared with parametric or nonparametric tests, and with Pearson’s χ² test. Correlation between continuous variables was assessed by means of Pearson’s or Spearman’s coefficient. Results: Fifty-three patients were enrolled. At 45 and at 90 days from surgery, the group receiving lacrimal substitutes presented better BUT and Schirmer I test (p = 0.009, <0.001, <0.001 and 0.001, respectively); dry eye presence showed significant difference by group at time 90 (p = 0.019). General vision, near activity and vision-specific dependency subscales improved after surgery (p = <0.001, 0.004 and 0.048, respectively). At 45 and 90 days from surgery, the OSDI score significantly changed (p < 0.001).Conclusions: Cataract surgery causes the onset or the worsening of dry eye. Use of artificial tears can significantly reduce symptoms and signs of dry eye in patients after phacoemulsification. Full article

Prior knowledge alters perception already on early levels of processing. For instance, judging the display size of an object is affected by its familiar size. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we investigated the neural processes involved in resolving ambiguities between familiar object size and physical object size in 33 healthy human subjects. The familiar size was either small or large, and the object was displayed as either small or large. Thus, the size of the displayed object was either congruent or incongruent with its internally stored canonical size representation. Subjects were asked to indicate where the stimuli appeared on the screen as quickly and accurately as possible, thereby ensuring that differential activations cannot be ascribed to explicit object size judgments. Incongruent (relative to congruent) object displays were associated with enhanced activation of the right intraparietal sulcus (IPS). These data are consistent with but extend previous patient studies, which found the right parietal cortex involved in matching visual objects presented atypically to prototypical object representations, suggesting that the right IPS supports view normalization of objects. In a second experiment, using a parametric design, a region-of-interest analysis supported this notion by showing that increases in size mismatch between the displayed size of an object and its familiar viewing size were associated with an increased right IPS activation. We conclude that the right IPS performs view normalization of mismatched information about the internally stored prototypical size and the current viewing size of an object. Full article