Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases

A special issue of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (ISSN 2414-6366). This special issue belongs to the section "Infectious Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 December 2022) | Viewed by 50634

Special Issue Editor

1. School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth 6102, Australia
2. Geospital and Tuberculosis (GeoTB) Team, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth 6009, Australia
Interests: spatial epidemiology; infectious diseases; emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases; tuberculosis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Infectious diseases such as bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases continue to have a significant impact on global health. Many new infectious diseases such as HIV, Ebola virus, and the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) have also emerged to pose additional health threats at global and national levels. Knowledge of the geographical distribution of infectious diseases and factors that determine where and when these infectious diseases occur is crucial for policy makers to implement targeted interventions at local and sub-national levels. This might be particularly important in resource-constrained settings and in countries with a high infectious diseases burden. Spatial analyses are useful methods for explaining and predicting patterns of infectious diseases across geographical space and identifying areas of potentially high risk (i.e., hot spot areas).

Spatial epidemiology of infectious diseases is an emerging field in epidemiology which includes a variety of analytical approaches to investigate the spatial distribution of infectious diseases and their demographic, environmental, climatic, behavioral, and socioeconomic risk factors. Although spatial epidemiology has a long history of use in public health, it is only recently that spatial analysis has become widely available because of the development of new technologies and the availability of geographical information systems.

The Special Issue “Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases” welcomes high quality original research articles and review articles in the broad subject area of spatial or spatiotemporal analysis/modelling of bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases including tuberculosis, HIV, malaria, dengue, cholera, measles, schistosomiasis, leptospirosis, influenza, chikungunya, Zika, Ebola, MERS-CoV, SARS, COVID -19, hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, soil-transmitted helminths, neglected tropical diseases, sexually transmitted diseases and other emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. We are particularly interested in papers focusing on geospatial analyses of data, models explaining spatial or spatiotemporal patterns of infectious diseases, and analyses that incorporate a spatial component in the model.

Dr. Kefyalew Addis Alene
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Spatial epidemiology
  • Spatial analysis
  • Geospatial analysis
  • Spatiotemporal model
  • Spatial information in health
  • Disease mapping
  • Infectious diseases
  • Tuberculosis
  • HIV
  • Malaria
  • Dengue
  • Cholera
  • Measles
  • Leptospirosis
  • Influenza
  • Chikungunya
  • Zika
  • Ebola
  • MERS-CoV
  • SARS
  • COVID -19
  • Hepatitis B
  • Hepatitis C
  • Soil-transmitted helminths
  • Neglected tropical diseases
  • Sexually transmitted diseases
  • Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases

Published Papers (17 papers)

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Research

25 pages, 5956 KiB  
Article
“Does a Respiratory Virus Have an Ecological Niche, and If So, Can It Be Mapped?” Yes and Yes
by Christopher R. Stephens, Constantino González-Salazar and Pedro Romero-Martínez
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2023, 8(3), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed8030178 - 17 Mar 2023
Viewed by 1200
Abstract
Although the utility of Ecological Niche Models (ENM) and Species Distribution Models (SDM) has been demonstrated in many ecological applications, their suitability for modelling epidemics or pandemics, such as SARS-Cov-2, has been questioned. In this paper, contrary to this viewpoint, we show that [...] Read more.
Although the utility of Ecological Niche Models (ENM) and Species Distribution Models (SDM) has been demonstrated in many ecological applications, their suitability for modelling epidemics or pandemics, such as SARS-Cov-2, has been questioned. In this paper, contrary to this viewpoint, we show that ENMs and SDMs can be created that can describe the evolution of pandemics, both in space and time. As an illustrative use case, we create models for predicting confirmed cases of COVID-19, viewed as our target “species”, in Mexico through 2020 and 2021, showing that the models are predictive in both space and time. In order to achieve this, we extend a recently developed Bayesian framework for niche modelling, to include: (i) dynamic, non-equilibrium “species” distributions; (ii) a wider set of habitat variables, including behavioural, socio-economic and socio-demographic variables, as well as standard climatic variables; (iii) distinct models and associated niches for different species characteristics, showing how the niche, as deduced through presence-absence data, can differ from that deduced from abundance data. We show that the niche associated with those places with the highest abundance of cases has been highly conserved throughout the pandemic, while the inferred niche associated with presence of cases has been changing. Finally, we show how causal chains can be inferred and confounding identified by showing that behavioural and social factors are much more predictive than climate and that, further, the latter is confounded by the former. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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18 pages, 23008 KiB  
Article
Efficacy Assessment of Autodissemination Using Pyriproxyfen-Treated Ovitraps in the Reduction of Dengue Incidence in Parañaque City, Philippines: A Spatial Analysis
by Antonio D. Ligsay, Zypher Jude G. Regencia, Kristan Jela M. Tambio, Michelle Joyce M. Aytona, Alain Jason A. Generale, Grecebio Jonathan D. Alejandro, Jacquiline S. Tychuaco, Lilian A. De las Llagas, Emmanuel S. Baja and Richard Edward L. Paul
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2023, 8(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed8010066 - 16 Jan 2023
Viewed by 2797
Abstract
Dengue is one of the most important vector-borne diseases worldwide and is a significant public health problem in the tropics. Mosquito control continues to be the primary approach to reducing the disease burden and spread of dengue virus (DENV). Aside from the traditional [...] Read more.
Dengue is one of the most important vector-borne diseases worldwide and is a significant public health problem in the tropics. Mosquito control continues to be the primary approach to reducing the disease burden and spread of dengue virus (DENV). Aside from the traditional larviciding and adulticiding interventions, autodissemination using pyriproxyfen-treated (AD-PPF) ovitraps is one of the promising methods to complement existing vector control strategies. Our paper assessed the efficacy of AD-PPF in reducing DENV infections in two barangays in Parañaque City. Using saliva samples from the participants from both the control and intervention sites, we collected the seroprevalence data for three months in each of the two years. Spatial analysis was conducted to determine hotspot areas and identify DENV infection distributions across the trial periods. The results showed that the intervention site was identified as having a clustering of DENV infections in Month 0 of Year 1 and shifted to a random dispersion of dengue cases at the end of Month 3 in Year 2. The disappearance of the clustering of the intervention site translates to a decrease in the cases of DENV infection relative to the control site. Furthermore, we also identified that DENV transmission occurred at a small-scale level that did not go beyond 86 m. In conclusion, AD-PPF is suggested to be an effective strategy and may be used as an additional vector control approach, albeit based on this short-term implementation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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16 pages, 4599 KiB  
Article
Predicting the Impact of Climate Change on the Distribution of a Neglected Arboviruses Vector (Armigeres subalbatus) in China
by Gang Wang, Dongjing Zhang, Jehangir Khan, Jiatian Guo, Qingdeng Feng, Yan Sun, Beiqing Li, Yu Wu, Zhongdao Wu and Xiaoying Zheng
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(12), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7120431 - 12 Dec 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1377
Abstract
The geographic boundaries of arboviruses continue to expand, posing a major health threat to millions of people around the world. This expansion is related to the availability of effective vectors and suitable habitats. Armigeres subalbatus (Coquillett, 1898), a common and neglected species, is of [...] Read more.
The geographic boundaries of arboviruses continue to expand, posing a major health threat to millions of people around the world. This expansion is related to the availability of effective vectors and suitable habitats. Armigeres subalbatus (Coquillett, 1898), a common and neglected species, is of increasing interest given its potential vector capacity for Zika virus. However, potential distribution patterns and the underlying driving factors of Ar. subalbatus remain unknown. In the current study, detailed maps of their potential distributions were developed under both the current as well as future climate change scenarios (SSP126 and SSP585) based on CMIP6 data, employing the MaxEnt model. The results showed that the distribution of the Ar. subalbatus was mainly affected by temperature. Mean diurnal range was the strongest predictor in shaping the distribution of Ar. subalbatus, with an 85.2% contribution rate. By the 2050s and 2070s, Ar. subalbatus will have a broader potential distribution across China. There are two suitable expansion types under climate change in the 2050s and 2070s. The first type is continuous distribution expansion, and the second type is sporadic distribution expansion. Our comprehensive analysis of Ar. subalbatus’s suitable distribution areas shifts under climate change and provides useful and insightful information for developing management strategies for future arboviruses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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10 pages, 1225 KiB  
Article
Dengue Incidence and Aedes Vector Collections in Relation to COVID-19 Population Mobility Restrictions
by Sinnathamby Noble Surendran, Ratnarajah Nagulan, Annathurai Tharsan, Kokila Sivabalakrishnan and Ranjan Ramasamy
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(10), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7100287 - 07 Oct 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1781
Abstract
Contrary to expectation, dengue incidence decreased in many countries during the period when stringent population movement restrictions were imposed to combat COVID-19. Using a seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average model, we previously reported a 74% reduction in the predicted number of dengue cases [...] Read more.
Contrary to expectation, dengue incidence decreased in many countries during the period when stringent population movement restrictions were imposed to combat COVID-19. Using a seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average model, we previously reported a 74% reduction in the predicted number of dengue cases from March 2020 to April 2021 in the whole of Sri Lanka, with reductions occurring in all 25 districts in the country. The reduction in dengue incidence was accompanied by an 87% reduction in larval collections of Aedes vectors in the northern city of Jaffna. It was proposed that movement restrictions led to reduced human contact and blood feeding by Aedes vectors, accompanied by decreased oviposition and vector densities, which were responsible for diminished dengue transmission. These findings are extended in the present study by investigating the relationship between dengue incidence, population movement restrictions, and vector larval collections between May 2021 and July 2022, when movement restrictions began to be lifted, with their complete removal in November 2021. The new findings further support our previous proposal that population movement restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic reduced dengue transmission primarily by influencing human–Aedes vector interaction dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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37 pages, 1730 KiB  
Article
Tuberculosis Disability Adjusted Life Years, Colombia 2010–2018
by Laura Plata-Casas, Oscar Gutierrez-Lesmes and Favio Cala-Vitery
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(9), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7090250 - 18 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1655
Abstract
Estimating the burden of tuberculosis disease is relevant for assessing and identifying population health status and progress in policies and programs aimed at epidemic control. The objective of this study was to estimate disability-adjusted life years attributable to Tuberculosis in Colombia 2010–2018. A [...] Read more.
Estimating the burden of tuberculosis disease is relevant for assessing and identifying population health status and progress in policies and programs aimed at epidemic control. The objective of this study was to estimate disability-adjusted life years attributable to Tuberculosis in Colombia 2010–2018. A longitudinal descriptive study was conducted. The variables, sex, age groups and origin were studied. This study included 110,475 cases of morbidity and 8514 cases of mortality. Indicators of years of life lost, years of life with disability and disability-adjusted life years at the subnational level were determined using the methodology of the World Health Organization. With the results of this last indicator, an epidemiological risk stratification was carried out. The DALY rate of the study period was 684 (95% CI 581.2–809.1) per 100,000 inhabitants. According to sex, 68.4% occurred in men; for every DALY in women, 2.21 occur in men. People of productive age (15 to 69 years) account for 56% of DALYs. Amazonas (1857.1 CI 95% 1177.1–2389.6) was the territorial entity with the highest rate. A total of 51.5% of the territorial entities of departmental order of the country are of high burden for Tuberculosis. For the first time in Colombia, a comprehensive assessment of the status of the disease burden at a subnational (departmental) territorial level attributable to Tuberculosis is being carried out using the updated World Health Organization methodology. The results obtained allow us to specify that there is a knowledge gap in terms of the realization and clear understanding of the burden of the disease in Colombia. There are territorial gaps that are necessary to know in order to plan, develop, implement and redirect policies to improve health and eliminate disparities according to the territorial context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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29 pages, 1938 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Variation and Predictors of Unsuppressed Viral Load among HIV-Positive Men and Women in Rural and Peri-Urban KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
by Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B. M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir, Delia North, Ebenezer Ogunsakin and Perry Rakgoale
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(9), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7090232 - 06 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2025
Abstract
Unsuppressed HIV viral load is an important marker of sustained HIV transmission. We investigated the prevalence, predictors, and high-risk areas of unsuppressed HIV viral load among HIV-positive men and women. Unsuppressed HIV viral load was defined as viral load of ≥400 copies/mL. Data [...] Read more.
Unsuppressed HIV viral load is an important marker of sustained HIV transmission. We investigated the prevalence, predictors, and high-risk areas of unsuppressed HIV viral load among HIV-positive men and women. Unsuppressed HIV viral load was defined as viral load of ≥400 copies/mL. Data from the HIV Incidence District Surveillance System (HIPSS), a longitudinal study undertaken between June 2014 to June 2016 among men and women aged 15–49 years in rural and peri-urban KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, were analysed. A Bayesian geoadditive regression model which includes a spatial effect for a small enumeration area was applied using an integrated nested Laplace approximation (INLA) function while accounting for unobserved factors, non-linear effects of selected continuous variables, and spatial autocorrelation. The prevalence of unsuppressed HIV viral load was 46.1% [95% CI: 44.3–47.8]. Predictors of unsuppressed HIV viral load were incomplete high school education, being away from home for more than a month, alcohol consumption, no prior knowledge of HIV status, not ever tested for HIV, not on antiretroviral therapy (ART), on tuberculosis (TB) medication, having two or more sexual partners in the last 12 months, and having a CD4 cell count of <350 cells/μL. A positive non-linear effect of age, household size, and the number of lifetime HIV tests was identified. The higher-risk pattern of unsuppressed HIV viral load occurred in the northwest and northeast of the study area. Identifying predictors of unsuppressed viral load in a localized geographic area and information from spatial risk maps are important for targeted prevention and treatment programs to reduce the transmission of HIV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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13 pages, 2620 KiB  
Article
The Temporal and Spatial Epidemiology Employed in the Elimination of the HIV Epidemic in the Largest Capital of the Brazilian Rainforest
by Bruna Rafaela Leite Dias, Taymara Barbosa Rodrigues, Dulce Gomes, Ricardo Alexandre Arcêncio, Elucir Gir, Glenda Roberta Oliveira Naiff Ferreira, Sandra Helena Isse Polaro and Eliã Pinheiro Botelho
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(9), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7090225 - 02 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1440
Abstract
Background: The main goal of this study was to analyze the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic temporally and spatially in Belém from 2007 to 2018. Methods: The incidence rates were analyzed according to time using autoregressive integrated moving-average models, as well as spatially [...] Read more.
Background: The main goal of this study was to analyze the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic temporally and spatially in Belém from 2007 to 2018. Methods: The incidence rates were analyzed according to time using autoregressive integrated moving-average models, as well as spatially using spatial autocorrelation, Kernel density, scan statistics, and regression techniques. Results: During the study period, 6007 notifications of new cases of HIV/AIDS were reported. The time series analysis revealed a stabilized trend of incidence from 2007 to October 2016, followed by irregular fluctuations until the end of December 2018. Seasonal behavior was observed from 2019 to 2022. The high–high incidence clusters were found in the central and transition areas. An expansion of the number of new reported cases was observed in the central area. Three spatial risk zones were observed. The higher relative risk zone was concentrated in the transition area. The spatial regression showed that the incidence rates were positively correlated with the Family Health Strategy (FHS) coverage. Conclusions: To eliminate HIV in Belém, it will be necessary to decentralize testing and ART and expand the coverage of FHS to ensure universal access to healthcare for citizens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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16 pages, 3334 KiB  
Article
Investigating Spatial Patterns of Pulmonary Tuberculosis and Main Related Factors in Bandar Lampung, Indonesia Using Geographically Weighted Poisson Regression
by Helina Helmy, Muhammad Totong Kamaluddin, Iskhaq Iskandar and Suheryanto
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(9), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7090212 - 26 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1922
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly infectious disease, representing one of the major causes of death worldwide. Sustainable Development Goal 3.3 implies a serious decrease in the incidence of TB cases. Hence, this study applied a spatial analysis approach to investigate patterns of pulmonary [...] Read more.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly infectious disease, representing one of the major causes of death worldwide. Sustainable Development Goal 3.3 implies a serious decrease in the incidence of TB cases. Hence, this study applied a spatial analysis approach to investigate patterns of pulmonary TB cases and its drivers in Bandar Lampung (Indonesia). Our study examined seven variables: the growth rate of pulmonary TB, population, distance to the city center, industrial area, green open space, built area, and slum area using geographically weighted Poisson regression (GWPR). The GWPR model demonstrated excellent results with an R2 and adjusted R2 of 0.96 and 0.94, respectively. In this case, the growth rate of pulmonary TB and population were statistically significant variables. Spatial pattern analysis of sub-districts revealed that those of Panjang and Kedaton were driven by high pulmonary TB growth rate and population, whereas that of Sukabumi was driven by the accumulation of high levels of industrial area, built area, and slums. For these reasons, we suggest that local policymakers implement a variety of infectious disease prevention and control strategies based on the spatial variation of pulmonary TB rate and its influencing factors in each sub-district. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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12 pages, 963 KiB  
Article
Surveillance Quality Indicators Highlight the Need for Improving Tuberculosis Diagnostics and Monitoring in a Hyperendemic Area of the Brazilian Amazon Region
by Juliana Conceição Dias Garcez, Daniele Melo Sardinha, Emilyn Costa Conceição, Gabriel Fazzi Costa, Ianny Ferreira Raiol Sousa, Cristal Ribeiro Mesquita, Wellington Caldas do Carmo, Yan Corra Rodrigues, Luana Nepomuceno Gondim Costa Lima and Karla Valéria Batista Lima
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(8), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7080165 - 03 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1304
Abstract
The city of Ananindeua, State of Pará, Brazil, is a hyperendemic area for tuberculosis (TB). The present study describes the population characteristics and epidemiological indicators of TB cases from Ananindeua, from 2018 to 2020. The TB cases were screened from the Municipal Health [...] Read more.
The city of Ananindeua, State of Pará, Brazil, is a hyperendemic area for tuberculosis (TB). The present study describes the population characteristics and epidemiological indicators of TB cases from Ananindeua, from 2018 to 2020. The TB cases were screened from the Municipal Health Department of Ananindeua database, and the secondary data were obtained from the Brazilian Notifiable Diseases Information System (SINAN). A high percentage of cases did not undergo a rapid molecular test (74.9%) or culture (84.8%) for diagnosis of TB; a chest X-ray examination for diagnosis of TB was performed in 74.47% of new cases. The SINAN form data was incomplete on susceptibility test results (<0.01–92.7). Sputum smear microscopy for monitoring treatment was recorded in the follow-up form in 34.3% and after the 6th month in 61.1% of cases. The cure rate (60.31%) was below the recommendation by the Brazilian Ministry of Health. The quality indicators showed many weaknesses: (I) lack of availability of smear microscopy as a diagnostic test in a hyper-endemic area; (II) low availability of specific exams such as culture and rapid molecular test (RMT); (III) low adherence to smear microscopy to monitor the evolution of cases during treatment; (IV) absence of drug susceptibility test data; (V) failure to fill in essential variables for TB surveillance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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12 pages, 820 KiB  
Article
Tuberculosis Mortality in Children under Fifteen Years of Age: Epidemiological Situation in Colombia, 2010–2018
by Laura Plata-Casas, Leandro González-Támara and Favio Cala-Vitery
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(7), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7070117 - 25 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2011
Abstract
Pediatric tuberculosis is a serious infectious disease and a hidden global epidemic. The objective of this study was to describe the epidemiological situation of tuberculosis mortality in children under 15 years of age in Colombia in the period 2010–2018. A longitudinal descriptive study [...] Read more.
Pediatric tuberculosis is a serious infectious disease and a hidden global epidemic. The objective of this study was to describe the epidemiological situation of tuberculosis mortality in children under 15 years of age in Colombia in the period 2010–2018. A longitudinal descriptive study was conducted. The variables sex, age groups, and origin were studied. This study had 260 cases for analysis and was carried out in three phases. The first phase was the determination of the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. The second phase was the construction of indicators by territorial entities. The third phase was stratification into four epidemiological situations according to the mortality rate and years of life lost. The median age was 7 years (range 0–14), 66.5% of cases were pulmonary tuberculosis (97.7% without bacteriological confirmation), 14.3781 years of life lost were recorded (95% CI: 142.811–168.333), and in children under 10–14 years, the loss was 110,057. Amazonas had the highest adjusted YLL rate (3979.7). In total, 36.4% of the territories had a high mortality, and 30.3% adjusted to the situation designated as 1. This is the first study that has used composite indicators to address the problem of premature mortality from childhood tuberculosis in Colombia. Our results allow us to specify that this disease remains a challenge for public health. It requires models of care and differential strategies by region. It also requires ensuring opportunities in diagnosis with sensitive methods, as well as intersectoral work for the optimal approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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25 pages, 9254 KiB  
Article
The Geographical Distribution and Influencing Factors of COVID-19 in China
by Weiwei Li, Ping Zhang, Kaixu Zhao and Sidong Zhao
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(3), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7030045 - 06 Mar 2022
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4343
Abstract
The study of the spatial differentiation of COVID-19 in cities and its driving mechanism is helpful to reveal the spatial distribution pattern, transmission mechanism and diffusion model, and evolution mechanism of the epidemic and can lay the foundation for constructing the spatial dynamics [...] Read more.
The study of the spatial differentiation of COVID-19 in cities and its driving mechanism is helpful to reveal the spatial distribution pattern, transmission mechanism and diffusion model, and evolution mechanism of the epidemic and can lay the foundation for constructing the spatial dynamics model of the epidemic and provide theoretical basis for the policy design, spatial planning and implementation of epidemic prevention and control and social governance. Geodetector (Origin version, Beijing, China) is a great tool for analysis of spatial differentiation and its influencing factors, and it provides decision support for differentiated policy design and its implementation in executing the city-specific policies. Using factor detection and interaction analysis of Geodetector, 15 indicators of economic, social, ecological, and environmental dimensions were integrated, and 143 cities were selected for the empirical research in China. The research shows that, first of all, risks of both infection and death show positive spatial autocorrelation, but the geographical distribution of local spatial autocorrelation differs significantly between the two. Secondly, the inequalities in urban economic, social, and residential environments interact with COVID-19 spatial heterogeneity, with stronger explanatory power especially when multidimensional inequalities are superimposed. Thirdly, the spatial distribution and spread of COVID-19 are highly spatially heterogeneous and correlated due to the complex influence of multiple factors, with factors such as Area of Urban Construction Land, GDP, Industrial Smoke and Dust Emission, and Expenditure having the strongest influence, the factors such as Area of Green, Number of Hospital Beds and Parks, and Industrial NOx Emissions having unignorable influence, while the factors such as Number of Free Parks and Industrial Enterprises, Per-GDP, and Population Density play an indirect role mainly by means of interaction. Fourthly, the factor interaction effect from the infected person’s perspective mainly shows a nonlinear enhancement effect, that is, the joint influence of the two factors is greater than the sum of their direct influences; but from the perspective of the dead, it mainly shows a two-factor enhancement effect, that is, the joint influence of the two factors is greater than the maximum of their direct influences but less than their sum. Fifthly, some suggestions are put forward from the perspectives of building a healthy, resilient, safe, and smart city, providing valuable reference and decision basis for city governments to carry out differentiated policy design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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14 pages, 1503 KiB  
Article
Environmental and Household-Based Spatial Risks for Tungiasis in an Endemic Area of Coastal Kenya
by Ayako Hyuga, Peter S. Larson, Morris Ndemwa, Sheru W. Muuo, Mwatasa Changoma, Mohamed Karama, Kensuke Goto and Satoshi Kaneko
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2022, 7(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7010002 - 23 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3226
Abstract
Tungiasis is a cutaneous parasitosis caused by an embedded female sand flea. The distribution of cases can be spatially heterogeneous even in areas with similar risk profiles. This study assesses household and remotely sensed environmental factors that contribute to the geographic distribution of [...] Read more.
Tungiasis is a cutaneous parasitosis caused by an embedded female sand flea. The distribution of cases can be spatially heterogeneous even in areas with similar risk profiles. This study assesses household and remotely sensed environmental factors that contribute to the geographic distribution of tungiasis cases in a rural area along the Southern Kenyan Coast. Data on household tungiasis case status, demographic and socioeconomic information, and geographic locations were recorded during regular survey activities of the Health and Demographic Surveillance System, mainly during 2011. Data were joined with other spatial data sources using latitude/longitude coordinates. Generalized additive models were used to predict and visualize spatial risks for tungiasis. The household-level prevalence of tungiasis was 3.4% (272/7925). There was a 1.1% (461/41,135) prevalence of infection among all participants. A significant spatial variability was observed in the unadjusted model (p-value < 0.001). The number of children per household, earthen floor, organic roof, elevation, aluminum content in the soil, and distance to the nearest animal reserve attenuated the odds ratios and partially explained the spatial variation of tungiasis. Spatial heterogeneity in tungiasis risk remained even after a factor adjustment. This suggests that there are possible unmeasured factors associated with the complex ecology of sand fleas that may contribute to the disease’s uneven distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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12 pages, 1134 KiB  
Article
Larvicidal Activities against Aedes aegypti of Supernatant and Pellet Fractions from Cultured Bacillus spp. Isolated from Amazonian Microenvironments
by Ricardo M. Katak, Elerson M. Rocha, Juan C. Oliveira, Veranilce A. Muniz, Marta R. Oliveira, Francisco A. S. Ferreira, William R. Silva, Rosemary A. Roque, Antonia Q. L. de Souza, Jayme A. Souza-Neto, Olle Terenius, Osvaldo Marinotti and Wanderli P. Tadei
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2021, 6(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed6020104 - 17 Jun 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5428
Abstract
The Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector of Dengue, Chikungunya and Zika causing major problems for public health, which requires new strategies for its control, like the use of entomopathogenic microorganisms. In this study, bacteria from various Amazonian environments were isolated and [...] Read more.
The Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector of Dengue, Chikungunya and Zika causing major problems for public health, which requires new strategies for its control, like the use of entomopathogenic microorganisms. In this study, bacteria from various Amazonian environments were isolated and tested for their pathogenicity to A. aegypti larvae. Following thermal shock to select sporulated Bacillus spp., 77 bacterial strains were isolated. Molecular identification per 16S RNA sequences revealed that the assembled strains contained several species of the genus Bacillus and one species each of Brevibacillus, Klebsiella, Serratia, Achromobacter and Brevundimonas. Among the isolated Bacillus sp. strains, 19 showed larvicidal activity against A. aegypti. Two strains of Brevibacillus halotolerans also displayed larvicidal activity. For the first time, larvicidal activity against A. aegypti was identified for a strain of Brevibacillus halotolerans. Supernatant and pellet fractions of bacterial cultures were tested separately for larvicidal activities. Eight strains contained isolated fractions resulting in at least 50% mortality when tested at a concentration of 5 mg/mL. Further studies are needed to characterize the active larvicidal metabolites produced by these microorganisms and define their mechanisms of action. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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10 pages, 1335 KiB  
Article
Prevalence and Risk Factors for Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection in Continental Croatian Regions
by Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek, Tena Oreski, Misa Korva, Branko Kolaric, Vladimir Stevanovic, Snjezana Zidovec-Lepej, Irena Tabain, Pavle Jelicic, Bozana Miklausic-Pavic, Vladimir Savic, Ljubo Barbic and Tatjana Avsic-Zupanc
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2021, 6(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed6020067 - 29 Apr 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3320
Abstract
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is a neglected human pathogen associated with aseptic meningitis, severe systemic infections in immunocompromised persons, and congenital anomalies. Data on the prevalence of LCMV infections are scarce. We analyzed the seroprevalence of LCMV in continental Croatian regions. A total [...] Read more.
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is a neglected human pathogen associated with aseptic meningitis, severe systemic infections in immunocompromised persons, and congenital anomalies. Data on the prevalence of LCMV infections are scarce. We analyzed the seroprevalence of LCMV in continental Croatian regions. A total of 338 serum samples of professionally exposed (forestry workers, hunters, agriculture workers in contact with rodents) and non-exposed populations (general population, pregnant women) were tested for the presence of LCMV antibodies using indirect immunofluorescence assay. No participants reported recent febrile disease. LCMV IgG antibodies were detected in 23/6.8% of participants: 9.8% exposed persons and 5.1% non-exposed persons (6.1% in the general population and 3.9% in pregnant women). No participants were LCMV IgM positive. Although higher seropositivity was found in males compared to females (8.9% vs. 4.7%), inhabitants of suburban/rural areas compared to inhabitants of urban areas (9.2% vs. 4.6%), and persons who used well as a source of water compared to those who used tap (11.4% vs. 5.6%), these differences did not reach statistical significance. Results of logistic regression showed that the presence of rodents in the house/yard and cleaning rodent nests were associated with an elevated risk for LCMV infection (OR = 2.962, 95% CI = 1.019–8.607). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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16 pages, 4022 KiB  
Article
Geno-Spatial Distribution of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis and Drug Resistance Profiles in Myanmar–Thai Border Area
by Htet Myat Win Maung, Prasit Palittapongarnpim, Htin Lin Aung, Komwit Surachat, Wint Wint Nyunt and Virasakdi Chongsuvivatwong
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2020, 5(4), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5040153 - 30 Sep 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3207
Abstract
Worldwide, studies investigating the relationship between the lineage of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) across geographic areas has empowered the “End TB” program and understand transmission across national boundaries. Genomic diversity of MTB varies with geographical locations and ethnicity. Genomic diversity can also affect the [...] Read more.
Worldwide, studies investigating the relationship between the lineage of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) across geographic areas has empowered the “End TB” program and understand transmission across national boundaries. Genomic diversity of MTB varies with geographical locations and ethnicity. Genomic diversity can also affect the emergence of drug resistance. In Myanmar, we still have limited genetic information about geographical, ethnicity, and drug resistance linkage to MTB genetic information. This study aimed to describe the geno-spatial distribution of MTB and drug resistance profiles in Myanmar–Thailand border areas. A cross-sectional study was conducted with a total of 109 sequenced isolates. The lineages of MTB and the potential associated socio-demographic, geographic and clinical factors were analyzed using Fisher’s exact tests. p value of statistically significance was set at < 0.05. We found that 67% of the isolates were lineage 1 (L1)/East-African-Indian (EAI) (n = 73), followed by lineage 2 (L2)/Beijing (n = 26), lineage 4 (L4)/European American (n = 6) and lineage 3 (L3)/Delhi/Central Asian (n = 4). “Gender”, “type of TB patient”, “sputum smear grading” and “streptomycin resistance” were significantly different with the lineages of MTB. Sublineages of L1, which had never been reported elsewhere in Myanmar, were detected in this study area. Moreover, both ethnicity and lineage of MTB significantly differed in distribution by patient location. Diversity of the lineage of MTB and detection of new sublineages suggested that this small area had been resided by a heterogeneous population group who actively transmitted the disease. This information on distribution of lineage of MTB can be linked in the future with those on the other side of the border to evaluate cross-border transmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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20 pages, 4669 KiB  
Article
Mapping the Geographic Distribution of Tungiasis in Sub-Saharan Africa
by Mark A. Deka
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2020, 5(3), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5030122 - 24 Jul 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8278
Abstract
The geographic distribution of tungiasis is poorly understood, despite the frequent occurrence of the disease in marginalized populations of low socioeconomic status. To date, little work is available to define the geography of this neglected tropical disease (NTD). This exploratory study incorporated geostatistical [...] Read more.
The geographic distribution of tungiasis is poorly understood, despite the frequent occurrence of the disease in marginalized populations of low socioeconomic status. To date, little work is available to define the geography of this neglected tropical disease (NTD). This exploratory study incorporated geostatistical modeling to map the suitability for tungiasis transmission in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In SSA, environmental suitability is predicted in 44 countries, including Angola, Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Cote de Ivoire, Mali, Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Gabon, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, and South Africa. In total, an estimated 668 million people live in suitable areas, 46% (304 million) of which reside in East Africa. These evidence-based maps provide vital evidence of the potential geographic extent in SSA. They will help to guide disease control programs, inform policymakers, and raise awareness at the global level. Likewise, these results will hopefully provide decisionmakers with the pertinent information necessary to lessen morbidity and mortality in communities located in environmentally suitable areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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10 pages, 436 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Latent Tuberculosis Infections among General versus Tuberculosis Health Care Workers in Myanmar
by Moe Hnin Phyu, Hutcha Sriplung, Myo Su Kyi, Cho Cho San and Virasakdi Chongsuvivatwong
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2020, 5(3), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5030116 - 14 Jul 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2180
Abstract
Health care workers (HCWs) in high tuberculosis (TB) prevalence countries have to care for many cases, thus increasing their risk of infection. The objective of the study was to compare the prevalence of latent TB infection (LTBI) between general HCWs and TB HCWs, [...] Read more.
Health care workers (HCWs) in high tuberculosis (TB) prevalence countries have to care for many cases, thus increasing their risk of infection. The objective of the study was to compare the prevalence of latent TB infection (LTBI) between general HCWs and TB HCWs, and also to explore the associated factors. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar from September 2019 to January 2020. Staff working at two general hospitals were recruited. Those allocated for TB care were classified as TB HCWs, while the remaining were classified as general HCWs. Participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire, and screened for LTBI using a tuberculin skin test (TST). Individuals who had an induration of 10 mm or more with normal chest radiograph were regarded as having LTBI. The prevalence of LTBI among general HCWs was 2.04 times higher than that of TB HCWs (31.2% vs. 15.3%, p < 0.001). The associated factors for LTBI included low education level, duration of work experience ≥ 10 years, a low knowledge of regular TB screening, and teaching cough etiquette to TB patients. The higher prevalence of LTBI in the general HCWs in this study was due to confounding by education and experience. After adjustment for these, we have no evidence to support that either group of HCWs had higher LTBI risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)
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