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A topical collection in Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This collection belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Arcady Zhukov

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Collection Editor

Department of Material Physics at UPV/ EHU in San Sebastian, Universidad del Pais Vasco, San Sebastian, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
Interests: magnetic materials and applications; amorphous nano-crystalline and granular magnetic materials; hysteretic magnetic properties; magnetic wires; transport properties (giant magneto-impedance effect, magneto-resistance); magnetic sensors
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Nicolò Marconato

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor

Department of Industrial Engineering, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
Interests: magnetic sensors; magnetic diagnostics; embedded electrostatic sensors; electromagnetic modelling; high-voltage measurement and modelling; active control; nuclear fusion science and technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

Magnetic sensors play an important role in many industries (microelectronics, security and electronic surveillance, automotive, aerospace and aircraft, home entertainment, computer science, electrical engineering, magnetic recording, construction monitoring, sensorics among others), providing the ability to detect events or changes in the environment and monitor such events through other electronic devices, for example, through a computer processor. Therefore, research and development in the field of magnetic sensors have recently attracted great attention from academia and industry.

In the last several years, numerous high-profile papers have been published by the community involved in the field related to development and design of novel high-performance magnetic sensors.

Recent trends in magnetic sensorics are focused on miniaturization, the improvement of features, and the finding of new operating principles based on fundamental studies of new materials and phenomena.

This Topical Collection will focus on the latest developments, research findings, ideas for highly sensitive magnetic devices and applications, and magnetic sensing technology, focused on basic phenomena and fundamental aspects of magnetic materials suitable for magnetic sensors and applications as well as on wireless non-destructive control and monitoring, wearable electronics, and medicine involving magnetic sensorics.

Both reviews and original research papers will be considered. Reviews should provide an up-to-date, well-balanced overview of the current state of the art of a particular application and include the main results from other groups.

The topics of this Topical Collection encompass but are not restricted to the following areas:

Magnetic sensors and actuators including, Hall-effect devices, magnetometers, magnetoimpedance sensors, magnetoresistance sensors, magnetoelastic sensors;
Novel magnetic materials for sensor and actuator applications and their advanced processing;
Fundamentals and physics involving basic effects, theory, modeling of magnetic sensors;
Magnetic measurements and instrumentation, measurement standards;
Smart materials and composites for wireless and non-destructive control including tunable metamaterials;
Development of magnetic sensors applications including biomedicine, electronic surveillance, electrical engineering, informatics, magnetic recording, construction monitoring, automobile and aircraft industries, among other

Prof. Dr. Arcady Zhukov
Prof. Dr. Nicolò Marconato
Collection Editors

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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2025

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022

23 pages, 23089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Algorithm for Fast 3D Characterization of Magnetic Sensors

by Moritz Boueke, Johannes Hoffmann, Mark Ellrichmann, Robert Bergholz and Gerhard Schmidt

Sensors 2025, 25(4), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25040995 - 7 Feb 2025

Viewed by 574

Abstract

Magnetic sensors are highly relevant in clinical and industrial applications such as localization tasks and geological investigations. The spatial behavior of these sensors is of great interest for accurate forward modeling and the consequential possibilities for sophisticated applications, e.g., solutions to inverse problems. In this contribution, we present a novel characterization approach using adaptive system identification approaches. We utilize a gradient-based algorithm for estimating impulse and corresponding frequency responses for a directivity analysis in 1D, 2D, and 3D. For this, we built a triaxial Helmholtz coil setup to generate a 3D directive field. This is controlled by an algorithm that exploits similarities in sensor behavior with respect to small differences in excitation field angles. We found advantages for a controlled adaptation, with faster convergence and a smaller system distance between estimations and measurements with a proposed control based on the contraction–expansion approach (CEA). With runtimes averaging less than 1.5 s per direction for full impulse response estimation, this proof of concept shows the potential of the proposed algorithm for enabling a feasible frequency and directivity characterization method. Full article

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2024

Jump to: 2025, 2023, 2022

16 pages, 4852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applicability of Small and Low-Cost Magnetic Sensors to Geophysical Exploration

by Filippo Accomando and Giovanni Florio

Sensors 2024, 24(21), 7047; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24217047 - 31 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1425

Abstract

In the past few decades, there has been a notable technological advancement in geophysical sensors. In the case of magnetometry, several sensors were used, having the common feature of being miniaturized and lightweight, thus idoneous to be carried by UAVs in drone-borne magnetometric surveys. A common feature is that their sensitivity ranges from 0.1 to about 200 nT, thus not comparable to that of optically pumped, standard fluxgate or even proton magnetometers. However, their low cost, volume and weight remain very interesting features of these sensors. In fact, such sensors have the common feature of being very inexpensive, so new ways of making surveys using many of these sensors could be devised, in addition to the possibility, even with limited resources, of creating gradiometers by combining two or more of them. In this paper, we explore the range of applicability of small tri-axial magnetometers commonly used for attitude determination in several devices. We compare the results of surveys performed with standard professional geophysical instruments with those obtained using these sensors and find that in the presence of strongly magnetized sources, they succeeded in identifying the main anomalies. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2025, 2024, 2022

21 pages, 4593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Two-Turn Shielded-Loop Magnetic Near-Field PCB Probe for Frequencies up to 3 GHz

by Mario Filipašić and Martin Dadić

Sensors 2023, 23(16), 7308; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23167308 - 21 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2213

Abstract

This paper proposes a novel design of shielded two-turn near-field probe with focus on high sensitivity and high electric field suppression. A comparison of different two-turn loop topologies and their influence on the probe sensitivity in the frequency range up to 3 GHz is presented. Furthermore, a comparison between a single loop probe and a two-turn probe is given and different topologies of the two-turn probe are analyzed and evaluated. The proposed probes were simulated using Ansys HFSS and manufactured on a standard FR4 substrate four-layer printed circuit board (PCB). A measurement setup for determining probe sensitivity and electric field suppression ratio using an in-house made PCB probe stand, vector network analyzer, microstrip line (MSL) and the manufactured probe is presented. It is shown that using a two-turn probe design it is possible to increase the probe sensitivity while minimizing the influence on the probe spatial resolution. The average sensitivity of the proposed two-turn probe compared to the conventional design is increased by 10.1 dB in the frequency range from 10 MHz up to 1 GHz. Full article

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10 pages, 1451 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Sensing of a Magnetically Actuated Prism

by Pascal M. Weber, Ulrike Wallrabe and Matthias C. Wapler

Sensors 2023, 23(12), 5493; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23125493 - 10 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1637

Abstract

We demonstrate a method for self-sensing of a magnetically actuated prism that can be used, e.g., in a feedback-loop without the need of additional sensors. In order to use the impedance of the actuation coils as a measurement parameter, we first obtained the optimal measurement frequency that is well separated from the actuation frequencies and at the same time provides the best compromise between sensitivity to the position and robustness. We then developed a combined actuation and measurement driver, and correlated its output signal to the mechanical state of the prism using a defined calibration sequence. We demonstrate that we can reliably measure the state of each actuator and determine the tilt angle of the prism with an accuracy of

\pm 0.1

^{\circ}

in the polar angle over a range of

\pm 4

^{\circ}

and

\pm 20

mrad in the azimuthal angle. Full article

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14 pages, 3186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shaping Perpendicular Magnetic Anisotropy of Co₂MnGa Heusler Alloy Using Ion Irradiation for Magnetic Sensor Applications

by Anmol Mahendra, Peter P. Murmu, Susant Kumar Acharya, Atif Islam, Holger Fiedler, Prasanth Gupta, Simon Granville and John Kennedy

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094564 - 8 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3642

Abstract

Magnetic sensors are key elements in many industrial, security, military, and biomedical applications. Heusler alloys are promising materials for magnetic sensor applications due to their high spin polarization and tunable magnetic properties. The dynamic field range of magnetic sensors is strongly related to the perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA). By tuning the PMA, it is possible to modify the sensing direction, sensitivity and even the accuracy of the magnetic sensors. Here, we report the tuning of PMA in a Co₂MnGa Heusler alloy film via argon (Ar) ion irradiation. MgO/Co₂MnGa/Pd films with an initial PMA were irradiated with 30 keV ⁴⁰Ar⁺ ions with fluences (ions·cm⁻²) between 1 × 10¹³ and 1 × 10¹⁵ Ar·cm⁻², which corresponds to displacement per atom values between 0.17 and 17, estimated from Monte-Carlo-based simulations. The magneto optical and magnetization results showed that the effective anisotropy energy (K_eff) decreased from ~153 kJ·m⁻³ for the un-irradiated film to ~14 kJ·m⁻³ for the 1 × 10¹⁴ Ar·cm⁻² irradiated film. The reduced K_eff and PMA are attributed to ion-irradiation-induced interface intermixing that decreased the interfacial anisotropy. These results demonstrate that ion irradiation is a promising technique for shaping the PMA of Co₂MnGa Heusler alloy for magnetic sensor applications. Full article

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10 pages, 8045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Sensitive Tunable Magnetometer Based on Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

by Antonio Vettoliere and Carmine Granata

Sensors 2023, 23(7), 3558; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073558 - 28 Mar 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4230

Abstract

In the present article, experimental results regarding fully integrated superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUID), including a circuit to tune and optimize the main sensor device characteristics, are reported. We show the possibility of modifying the critical current of a SQUID magnetometer in liquid helium by means of a suitable heating circuit. This allows us to improve the characteristics of the SQUID sensor and in particular to optimize the voltage–magnetic flux characteristic and the relative transfer factor (responsivity) and consequently to also improve the flux and magnetic field noise. It is also possible to reset the SQUID sensor in case of entrapment of magnetic flux, avoiding taking it out of the helium bath. These results are very useful in view of most SQUID applications such as those requiring large multichannel systems in which it is desirable to optimize and eventually reset the magnetic sensors in a simple and effective way. Full article

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13 pages, 4286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Magnetic Field of AMB on Eddy-Current Sensor Operation

by Paulina Kurnyta-Mazurek and Artur Kurnyta

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 2332; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042332 - 20 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2765

Abstract

This paper presents laboratory results on the influence of the magnetic field of an active magnetic bearing (AMB) on the eddy-current sensor operation. The magnetic suspension technology enables continuous diagnostics and monitoring of a rotary machine and eliminates drawbacks of classical bearing properties. The magnetic bearing system usually consists of two radial and one axial magnetic bearing. It is combined with a control unit, amplifiers and sensors for measuring the instantaneous position of the shaft. For this purpose, eddy-current sensors are frequently used. They operate in close proximity to the electromechanical actuators; therefore, the question arises whether the actuators do not interfere with the correct operation of these sensors. In the paper, the test rig and research plan prepared for that investigation are delivered. Measurement signals were registered from four control channels for different configurations of power supplies for system elements, e.g., with sensors and AMBs turned off, with sensors turn on and at normal work. Recorded time courses are presented and discussed in the paper. For the prepared test rig and AMB/eddy-current sensor configuration, no significant influence of the generated magnetic field from the support is found for the eddy-current sensor output. Full article

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19 pages, 3617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Cost Microcontroller-Based Multiparametric Probe for Coastal Area Monitoring

by Lorena Parra, Sandra Viciano-Tudela, David Carrasco, Sandra Sendra and Jaime Lloret

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 1871; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041871 - 7 Feb 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3899

Abstract

The monitoring of the coastal environment is a crucial factor in ensuring its proper management. Nevertheless, existing monitoring technologies are limited due to their cost, temporal resolution, and maintenance needs. Therefore, limited data are available for coastal environments. In this paper, we present a low-cost multiparametric probe that can be deployed in coastal areas and integrated into a wireless sensor network to send data to a database. The multiparametric probe is composed of physical sensors capable of measuring water temperature, salinity, and total suspended solids (TSS). The node can store the data in an SD card or send them. A real-time clock is used to tag the data and to ensure data gathering every hour, putting the node in deep sleep mode in the meantime. The physical sensors for salinity and TSS are created for this probe and calibrated. The calibration results indicate that no effect of temperature is found for both sensors and no interference of salinity in the measuring of TSS or vice versa. The obtained calibration model for salinity is characterised by a correlation coefficient of 0.9 and a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 0.74 g/L. Meanwhile, different calibration models for TSS were obtained based on using different light wavelengths. The best case was using a simple regression model with blue light. The model is characterised by a correlation coefficient of 0.99 and an MAE of 12 mg/L. When both infrared and blue light are used to prevent the effect of different particle sizes, the determination coefficient of 0.98 and an MAE of 57 mg/L characterised the multiple regression model. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2025, 2024, 2023

16 pages, 3001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analog Lock-In Amplifier Design Using Subsampling for Accuracy Enhancement in GMI Sensor Applications

by José M. Algueta-Miguel, J. Jesús Beato-López and Antonio J. López-Martín

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010057 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3830

Abstract

A frequency downscaling technique for enhancing the accuracy of analog lock-in amplifier (LIA) architectures in giant magneto-impedance (GMI) sensor applications is presented in this paper. As a proof of concept, the proposed method is applied to two different LIA topologies using, respectively, analog and switching-based multiplication for phase-sensitive detection. Specifically, the operation frequency of both the input and the reference signals of the phase-sensitive detector (PSD) block of the LIA is reduced through a subsampling process using sample-and-hold (SH) circuits. A frequency downscaling from 200 kHz, which is the optimal operating frequency of the employed GMI sensor, to 1 kHz has been performed. In this way, the proposed technique exploits the inherent advantages of analog signal multiplication at low frequencies, while the principle of operation of the PSD remains unaltered. The circuits were assembled using discrete components, and the frequency downscaling proposal was experimentally validated by comparing the measurement accuracy with the equivalent conventional circuits. The experimental results revealed that the error in the signal magnitude measurements was reduced by a factor of 8 in the case of the analog multipliers and by a factor of 21 when a PSD based on switched multipliers was used. The error in-phase detection using a two-phase LIA was also reduced by more than 25%. Full article

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20 pages, 7979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Interference between Eddy Current Sensors for the Radial Displacement Measurement of a Cylindrical Target

by Weifeng Zhang, Jianguo Bu, Dongjie Li, Ke Zhang and Ming Zhou

Sensors 2022, 22(12), 4375; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22124375 - 9 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3199

Abstract

In the radial displacement measurement of a small-sized cylindrical target, coupling interference between eddy current sensors reduces the accuracy of the measurement. In this study, finite element method (FEM) simulation based on ANSYS Maxwell was adopted to investigate the relationships between the coupling coefficient of the sensors and different parameters including the lift-off, cylinder diameter, axis angle, material, and excitation frequency. The experimental results were consistent with the simulation results. The coupling interference between the sensors increased with the decrease in the lift-off and cylinder diameter. The coupling effect decreased significantly when the probe axis angle increased to 120°, and the decrease in the sensor sensitivity was acceptable. A polynomial fitting function fitted the output signal well. A compensation method was given based on the compensation necessity evaluation. The results showed that the error of the rotor motion track was significantly decreased after compensation. Full article

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12 pages, 621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Composition of CoFeSiB Alloy for Orthogonal Fluxgates

by Mattia Butta, Michal Janošek, Jakub Pařez, Alexander Valeriano Inchausti and Horia Chiriac

Sensors 2022, 22(6), 2162; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062162 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3117

Abstract

Orthogonal fluxgates in fundamental mode based on

{({Co}_{0.94} {Fe}_{0.06})}_{72.5} {Si}_{12.5} B_{15}

cores have recorded very low noise in literature, especially if Joule annealing is performed on the core for a short period of time. However, for [...] Read more.

Orthogonal fluxgates in fundamental mode based on

{({Co}_{0.94} {Fe}_{0.06})}_{72.5} {Si}_{12.5} B_{15}

cores have recorded very low noise in literature, especially if Joule annealing is performed on the core for a short period of time. However, for annealing time longer than 20–30 min, the noise of the sensor has a tendency to increase. In this work, we investigated this phenomenon, and we have found its origin in a monotonic increase of magnetostriction during the annealing process. We show that the wires with vanishing magnetostriction in their as-cast form exhibit positive magnetostriction after long-time annealing (more than 30 min), which increases the noise of the sensor. After researching the effect of the magnetostriction after annealing on the noise, we propose an alloy with a reduced amount of iron. Less iron leads to a larger as-cast negative magnetostriction, which becomes almost zero after long-time annealing (60 min), bringing further reduction of noise. We prove this effect on two wires from two different manufacturers, although with the same composition. The noise decrease with prolonged annealing is mainly observable in the low-frequency region: at 100 mHz, the noise of a single-wire sensor decreased from

20 pT / \sqrt{Hz}

6 pT / \sqrt{Hz}

when the annealing time was prolonged from 10 to 60 min. Full article

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26 pages, 4941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Integrated Micro-Fluxgate Magnetic Sensors: Advantages and Challenges of Numerical Analyses

by Nicolò Marconato

Sensors 2022, 22(3), 961; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22030961 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5355

Abstract

Miniaturization and on-chip integration are major lines of research in many branches of science and technology developments, undoubtedly in sensor technology. Fluxgate magnetometers are very sensitive, and accurate magnetic sensors able to detect weak fields both AC and DC, which in recent years saw a great effort in minimizing their dimensions, weight, and power consumption. The physics behind the fluxgate principle is rather complex and makes simulations difficult and only partially used in the literature. The limited physical access to micro sensors for measurements and the need to optimize the entire integrated system, including the sensor geometry and the excitation and readout circuits, make numerical analyses particularly useful in the design of miniaturized sensors. After a thorough review of the miniaturized solutions proposed so far, the present paper examines in detail the possibility of adopting a model based approach for designing miniaturized fluxgate sensors. The model of the fluxgate effect of two different technologies proposed in the literature has been implemented to benchmark simulation results with real data. In addition to the advantages for an optimized design, the implementation and computational challenges of the numerical analyses are precisely outlined. Full article

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Published Papers (12 papers)

2025

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022

2024

Jump to: 2025, 2023, 2022

2023

Jump to: 2025, 2024, 2022

2022

Jump to: 2025, 2024, 2023

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