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Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 August 2024) | Viewed by 21864

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Marijo Buzuk

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Department of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Technology, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia
Interests: electrochemistry; Electroanalysis; Electrochemical sensors; surface modification; carbon electrodes; Polyelectrolytes; Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy; voltammetry
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Dr. Maša Buljac

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Guest Editor

Department of Environmental Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Technology, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia
Interests: electrochemical sensors; electrochemical methods; carbon electrode; environmental chemistry

Dr. Nives Vladislavić

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Guest Editor

Department of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Technology, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia
Interests: electrochemical sensors; electrochemical methods; carbon electrode; electrochemistry of inorganic complexes

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The growing interest in chemical sensing of toxic chemicals arises from the increasing demand for health and environmental standards, security and safety. Toxic chemicals (toxic inorganic species, gases, carcinogens substances, pesticides, etc.) have a wide range of household, industrial, and military applications, as cumulative exposure at trace concentrations can have long-term adverse effects. Chemical sensors are attractive devices that offer significant benefits, such as low cost, portability, simplicity of operation, selectivity, durability, etc.

The focus of this Special Issue will be on publishing original and review articles on recent advances and challenges in the development of chemical sensors in order to determine toxic chemicals. Herein, this Special Issue will focus on the following themes:

New trends in developments of electrochemical sensors (immunosensors, biosensors, affinity-based, DNA-based, mediator-based, semiconductor-based, etc.) for determination of toxic chemicals;
Carbon nanomaterials in a chemical sensing system;
Composite materials as sensing elements in the determination of toxic chemicals;
Biochips and microarray in the manufacturing of sensors;
Optical sensors and arrays in the detection of harmful substances;
Acoustic-wave-based sensors;
Toxic chemical sensors based on living organisms, tissues, and cells;
Metal nanoparticles in sensing toxic chemicals.

Dr. Marijo Buzuk
Dr. Maša Buljac
Dr. Nives Vladislavić
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 2705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Neural Network for Target Gas Detection in Interdigitated Electrode Sensor-Based E-Nose Systems

by Kadir Kaya and Mehmet Ali Ebeoğlu

Sensors 2024, 24(16), 5315; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165315 - 16 Aug 2024

Viewed by 420

Abstract

In this study, a neural network was developed for the detection of acetone, ethanol, chloroform, and air pollutant NO₂ gases using an Interdigitated Electrode (IDE) sensor-based e-nose system. A bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS)-based interface circuit was used to measure sensor responses in the e-nose system. The sensor was fed with a sinusoidal voltage at 10 MHz frequency and 0.707 V amplitude. Sensor responses were sampled at 100 Hz frequency and converted to digital data with 16-bit resolution. The highest change in impedance magnitude obtained in the e-nose system against chloroform gas was recorded as 24.86 Ω over a concentration range of 0–11,720 ppm. The highest gas detection sensitivity of the e-nose system was calculated as 0.7825 Ω/ppm against 6.7 ppm NO₂ gas. Before training with the neural network, data were filtered from noise using Kalman filtering. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to the improved signal data for dimensionality reduction, separating them from noise and outliers with low variance and non-informative characteristics. The neural network model created is multi-layered and employs the backpropagation algorithm. The Xavier initialization method was used for determining the initial weights of neurons. The neural network successfully classified NO₂ (6.7 ppm), acetone (1820 ppm), ethanol (1820 ppm), and chloroform (1465 ppm) gases with a test accuracy of 87.16%. The neural network achieved this test accuracy in a training time of 239.54 milliseconds. As sensor sensitivity increases, the detection capability of the neural network also improves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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14 pages, 6856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Sensitive and Selective Defect WS₂ Chemical Sensor for Detecting HCHO Toxic Gases

by Zhen Cui, Hanxiao Wang, Kunqi Yang, Yang Shen, Ke Qin, Pei Yuan and Enling Li

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030762 - 24 Jan 2024

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 1344

Abstract

The gas sensitivity of the W defect in WS₂ (V_W/WS₂) to five toxic gases—HCHO, CH₄, CH₃HO, CH₃OH, and CH₃CH₃—has been examined in this article. These five gases were [...] Read more.

The gas sensitivity of the W defect in WS₂ (V_W/WS₂) to five toxic gases—HCHO, CH₄, CH₃HO, CH₃OH, and CH₃CH₃—has been examined in this article. These five gases were adsorbed on the V_W/WS₂ surface, and the band, density of state (DOS), charge density difference (CDD), work function (W), current–voltage (I–V) characteristic, and sensitivity of adsorption systems were determined. Interestingly, for HCHO-V_W/WS₂, the energy level contribution of HCHO is closer to the Fermi level, the charge transfer (B) is the largest (0.104 e), the increase in W is more obvious than other adsorption systems, the slope of the I–V characteristic changes more obviously, and the calculated sensitivity is the highest. To sum up, V_W/WS₂ is more sensitive to HCHO. In conclusion, V_W/WS₂ has a great deal of promise for producing HCHO chemical sensors due to its high sensitivity and selectivity for HCHO, which can aid in the precise and efficient detection of toxic gases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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12 pages, 2562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Triangle-Shaped Cerium Tungstate Nanoparticles Used to Modify Carbon Paste Electrode for Sensitive Hydroquinone Detection in Water Samples

by Vesna Stanković, Slađana Đurđić, Miloš Ognjanović, Gloria Zlatić and Dalibor Stanković

Sensors 2024, 24(2), 705; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020705 - 22 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1283

Abstract

In this study, we propose an eco-friendly method for synthesizing cerium tungstate nanoparticles using hydrothermal techniques. We used scanning, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction to analyze the morphology of the synthesized nanoparticles. The results showed that the synthesized nanoparticles were uniform and highly crystalline, with a particle size of about 50 nm. The electrocatalytic properties of the nanoparticles were then investigated using cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. We further used the synthesized nanoparticles to develop an electrochemical sensor based on a carbon paste electrode that can detect hydroquinone. By optimizing the differential pulse voltammetric method, a wide linearity range of 0.4 to 45 µM and a low detection limit of 0.06 µM were obtained. The developed sensor also expressed excellent repeatability (RSD up to 3.8%) and reproducibility (RSD below 5%). Interferences had an insignificant impact on the determination of analytes, making it possible to use this method for monitoring hydroquinone concentrations in tap water. This study introduces a new approach to the chemistry of materials and the environment and demonstrates that a careful selection of components can lead to new horizons in analytical chemistry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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13 pages, 2924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ratiometric Sensing of Glyphosate in Water Using Dual Fluorescent Carbon Dots

by Adryanne Clermont-Paquette, Diego-Andrés Mendoza, Amir Sadeghi, Alisa Piekny and Rafik Naccache

Sensors 2023, 23(11), 5200; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115200 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2274

Abstract

Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum pesticide used in crops and is found in many products used by industry and consumers. Unfortunately, glyphosate has been shown to have some toxicity toward many organisms found in our ecosystems and has been reported to have carcinogenic effects on humans. Hence, there is a need to develop novel nanosensors that are more sensitive and facile and permit rapid detection. Current optical-based assays are limited as they rely on changes in signal intensity, which can be affected by multiple factors in the sample. Herein, we report the development of a dual emissive carbon dot (CD) system that can be used to optically detect glyphosate pesticides in water at different pH levels. The fluorescent CDs emit blue and red fluorescence, which we exploit as a ratiometric self-referencing assay. We observe red fluorescence quenching with increasing concentrations of glyphosate in the solution, ascribed to the interaction of the glyphosate pesticide with the CD surface. The blue fluorescence remains unaffected and serves as a reference in this ratiometric approach. Using fluorescence quenching assays, a ratiometric response is observed in the ppm range with detection limits as low as 0.03 ppm. Our CDs can be used to detect other pesticides and contaminants in water, as cost-effective and simple environmental nanosensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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15 pages, 5990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Applicability of Graphene-Modified Electrode in Sunset Yellow Electrochemical Assay

by Lidia Măgeruşan, Florina Pogăcean, Bogdan Ionuţ Cozar and Stela Pruneanu

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 2160; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042160 - 14 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1690

Abstract

Due to the recent increase in average living standards, food safety has caught public attention. It is necessary to conduct a qualitative and quantitative rapid test of prohibited food additives since the inclusion of food additives or the improper usage of synthetic dyes can negatively impact on the human health. Herein, a highly sensitive method for Sunset Yellow detection based on a glassy carbon electrode modified with few-layer graphenes was proposed. The electrochemical behavior of SY at the GR-exf/GCE modified surface was investigated by Cyclic Voltammetry, Square Wave Voltammetry, Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Amperometry. The influences of pH, scan rate, and interfering species were studied. Under optimized conditions, the developed sensor shows good linearity over a broad SY concentration range, e.g., 0.028–30 µM, with a low limit of detection (LOD = 0.0085 µM) and quantification (LOQ = 0.028 µM) (data obtained by amperometric technique). Furthermore, the modified electrode shows good selectivity, precision and sensitivity and has been successfully applied for SY quantification from commercially available pharmaceutical formulation as well as from candy bars and orange juice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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14 pages, 4990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Dots Obtained from Hydrothermal Carbonization of Chebulic Myrobalan and Their Sensing Ability toward Heavy Metal Ions

by Raji Atchudan, Suguna Perumal, Thomas Nesakumar Jebakumar Immanuel Edison, Ashok K. Sundramoorthy, Rajangam Vinodh, Sambasivam Sangaraju, Somasundaram Chandra Kishore and Yong Rok Lee

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020787 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2888

Abstract

Chebulic Myrobalan is the main ingredient in the Ayurvedic formulation Triphala, which is used for kidney and liver dysfunctions. Herein, natural nitrogen-doped carbon dots (NN-CDs) were prepared from the hydrothermal carbonization of Chebulic Myrobalan and were demonstrated to sense heavy metal ions in an aqueous medium. Briefly, the NN-CDs were developed from Chebulic Myrobalan by a single-step hydrothermal carbonization approach under a mild temperature (200 °C) without any capping and passivation agents. They were then thoroughly characterized to confirm their structural and optical properties. The resulting NN-CDs had small particles (average diameter: 2.5 ± 0.5 nm) with a narrow size distribution (1–4 nm) and a relatable degree of graphitization. They possessed bright and durable fluorescence with excitation-dependent emission behaviors. Further, the as-synthesized NN-CDs were a good fluorometric sensor for the detection of heavy metal ions in an aqueous medium. The NN-CDs showed sensitive and selective sensing platforms for Fe³⁺ ions; the detection limit was calculated to be 0.86 μM in the dynamic range of 5–25 μM of the ferric (Fe³⁺) ion concentration. Moreover, these NN-CDs could expand their application as a potential candidate for biomedical applications and offer a new method of hydrothermally carbonizing waste biomass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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14 pages, 1380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potentiometric Determination of Maprotiline Hydrochloride in Pharmaceutical and Biological Matrices Using a Novel Modified Carbon Paste Electrode

by Josip Radić, Dorotea Perović, Ema Gričar and Mitja Kolar

Sensors 2022, 22(23), 9201; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22239201 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1752

Abstract

Potentiometry with membrane selective electrodes is preferable for measuring the various constituents of pharmaceuticals. In this work, carbon paste electrodes (CPE) were prepared, modified, and tested for the determination of maprotiline hydrochloride, which acts as an antidepressant. The proposed CPE was based on an ionic association complex of maprotiline-tetraphenylborate, 2-nitrophenyloctyl as a binder, and sodium tetraphenylborate as an ionic lipophilic additive. The optimized composition improved potentiometric properties up to theoretical Nernst response values of −59.5 ± 0.8 mV dec⁻¹, in the concentration range of maprotiline from 1.6 × 10⁻⁷ to 1.0 × 10⁻² mol L⁻¹, and a detection limit of 1.1 × 10⁻⁷ mol L⁻¹. The CPE provides excellent reversibility and reproducibility, exhibits a fast response time, and is applicable over a wide pH range. No significant effect was observed in several interfering species tested. The proposed electrode was used for the precise determination of maprotiline in pure solutions, urine samples, and a real sample—the drug Ludiomil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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19 pages, 4060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Rare Earths on the Response of Photo UV-Activate ZnO Gas Sensors

by Isabel Sayago, José Pedro Santos and Carlos Sánchez-Vicente

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8150; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218150 - 25 Oct 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 1983

Abstract

In this work, ZnO nanoparticle resistive sensors decorated with rare earths (REs; including Er, Tb, Eu and Dy) were used at room temperature to detect atmospheric pollutant gases (NO₂, CO and CH₄). Sensitive films were prepared by drop casting from aqueous solutions of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) and trivalent RE ions. The sensors were continuously illuminated by ultraviolet light during the detection processes. The effect of photoactivation of the sensitive films was studied, as well as the influence of humidity on the response of the sensors to polluting gases. Comparative studies on the detection properties of the sensors showed how the presence of REs increased the response to the gases detected. Low concentrations of pollutant gases (50 ppb NO₂, 1 ppm CO and 3 ppm CH₄) were detected at room temperature. The detection mechanisms were then discussed in terms of the possible oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction in both dry and humid air atmospheres. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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Review

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22 pages, 5068 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress on Ammonia Sensors Based on Ti₃C₂T_x MXene at Room Temperature: A Review

by Kaixin Cheng, Xu Tian, Shaorui Yuan, Qiuyue Feng and Yude Wang

Sensors 2024, 24(14), 4465; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24144465 - 10 Jul 2024

Viewed by 518

Abstract

Ammonia (NH₃) potentially harms human health, the ecosystem, industrial and agricultural production, and other fields. Therefore, the detection of NH₃ has broad prospects and important significance. Ti₃C₂T_x is a common MXene material that is great for detecting NH₃ at room temperature because it has a two-dimensional layered structure, a large specific surface area, is easy to functionalize on the surface, is sensitive to gases at room temperature, and is very selective for NH₃. This review provides a detailed description of the preparation process as well as recent advances in the development of gas-sensing materials based on Ti₃C₂T_x MXene for room-temperature NH₃ detection. It also analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of various preparation and synthesis methods for Ti₃C₂T_x MXene’s performance. Since the gas-sensitive performance of pure Ti₃C₂T_x MXene regarding NH₃ can be further improved, this review discusses additional composite materials, including metal oxides, conductive polymers, and two-dimensional materials that can be used to improve the sensitivity of pure Ti₃C₂T_x MXene to NH₃. Furthermore, the present state of research on the NH₃ sensitivity mechanism of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene-based sensors is summarized in this study. Finally, this paper analyzes the challenges and future prospects of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene-based gas-sensitive materials for room-temperature NH₃ detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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18 pages, 1047 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Trends in Chemical Sensors for Detecting Toxic Materials

by Yeonhong Kim, Yangwon Jeon, Minyoung Na, Soon-Jin Hwang and Youngdae Yoon

Sensors 2024, 24(2), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020431 - 10 Jan 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3085

Abstract

Industrial development has led to the widespread production of toxic materials, including carcinogenic, mutagenic, and toxic chemicals. Even with strict management and control measures, such materials still pose threats to human health. Therefore, convenient chemical sensors are required for toxic chemical monitoring, such as optical, electrochemical, nanomaterial-based, and biological-system-based sensors. Many existing and new chemical sensors have been developed, as well as new methods based on novel technologies for detecting toxic materials. The emergence of material sciences and advanced technologies for fabrication and signal-transducing processes has led to substantial improvements in the sensing elements for target recognition and signal-transducing elements for reporting interactions between targets and sensing elements. Many excellent reviews have effectively summarized the general principles and applications of different types of chemical sensors. Therefore, this review focuses on chemical sensor advancements in terms of the sensing and signal-transducing elements, as well as more recent achievements in chemical sensors for toxic material detection. We also discuss recent trends in biosensors for the detection of toxic materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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21 pages, 1408 KiB

Open AccessReview

Electrochemical and Optical Sensors for the Detection of Chemical Carcinogens Causing Leukemia

by Adrian Kowalczyk, Julia Zarychta, Monika Lejman and Joanna Zawitkowska

Sensors 2023, 23(7), 3369; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073369 - 23 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3058

Abstract

The incidence and mortality due to neoplastic diseases have shown an increasing tendency over the years. Based on GLOBOCAN 2020 published by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), leukemias are the thirteenth most commonly diagnosed cancer in the world, with 78.6% of leukemia cases diagnosed in countries with a very high or high Human Development Index (HDI). Carcinogenesis is a complex process initiated by a mutation in DNA that may be caused by chemical carcinogens present in polluted environments and human diet. The IARC has identified 122 human carcinogens, e.g., benzene, formaldehyde, pentachlorophenol, and 93 probable human carcinogens, e.g., styrene, diazinone. The aim of the following review is to present the chemical carcinogens involved or likely to be involved in the pathogenesis of leukemia and to summarize the latest reports on the possibility of detecting these compounds in the environment or food with the use of electrochemical sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors for Toxic Chemical Detection)

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