Reproductive Medicine

Background/Objectives: Fertility preservation (FP) has become an integral component of multidisciplinary care for patients at risk of treatment- or disease-related infertility. Although several established and emerging fertility preservation strategies are currently available, important challenges remain regarding patient selection, timing of intervention, long-term reproductive outcomes, and the translation of experimental approaches into routine clinical practice. This review critically appraises the current evidence on female and male fertility preservation, highlighting established techniques, emerging technologies, unresolved clinical challenges, and future research priorities. Oocyte vitrification remains the preferred strategy for postpubertal women when ovarian stimulation is feasible, whereas ovarian tissue cryopreservation has become an established option for selected patients requiring urgent treatment or for prepubertal girls. In men, sperm cryopreservation remains the standard of care, while fertility preservation in prepubertal boys is still investigational. Despite excellent laboratory outcomes, the real-world utilization of cryopreserved reproductive material remains unexpectedly low, highlighting persistent barriers in patient referral, counselling, and long-term follow-up. Methods: A structured narrative review was conducted using PubMed/MEDLINE and Embase to identify international guidelines, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, multicentre cohorts, registry-based studies, and original clinical investigations published between January 2015 and June 2025. Evidence was synthesized according to sex, age, fertility preservation indication, and clinical applicability. Interventions reviewed include oocyte and embryo cryopreservation, ovarian tissue cryopreservation (OTC), GnRH agonist co-treatment, ovarian transposition, in vitro maturation (IVM), sperm banking, surgical sperm retrieval (SSR), testicular tissue cryopreservation (TTC), and spermatogonial stem-cell (SSC) approaches. Results: Oocyte vitrification remains the preferred strategy for postpubertal women when ovarian stimulation is feasible, whereas ovarian tissue cryopreservation has become an established option for selected patients requiring urgent treatment or for prepubertal girls. In men, sperm cryopreservation prior to therapy is standard; SSR provides sperm for selected azoospermic cases. Paediatric FP strategies are asymmetric: OTC is clinically established, while TTC remains investigational. Random-start COS and aromatase inhibitor or tamoxifen protocols minimise treatment delay and hormonal exposure, and GnRHa co-treatment can serve as an adjunctive ovarian-protective measure. Despite high laboratory success, utilisation of banked gametes and tissue is modest, underscoring the need for structured referral pathways, patient counselling, and longitudinal follow-up. Conclusions: FP should be systematically integrated into both oncological and non-oncologic care pathways, with timely referral, age- and sex-specific counselling on live-birth probabilities, and long-term follow-up. Future priorities include harmonization of clinical protocols, standardized outcome reporting, registry-based long-term follow-up, and validation of emerging technologies to improve both reproductive outcomes and equitable access to fertility preservation. Full article