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Buddhist Architecture in East Asia

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A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 August 2021) | Viewed by 44475

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Dr. Shuishan Yu

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture, College of Arts, Media and Design, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115-5000, USA
Interests: Chinese architecture; Buddhist architecture in East Asia; guqin music and literati arts
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Aibin Yan

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Guest Editor

Department of Landscape Planning and Design, School of Art Design and Media, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
Interests: Chinese architectural history; Buddhist architecture in East Asia; Chinese classical garden; architectural heritage protection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Issue focuses on the Buddhist architecture in East Asia. Over the last two thousand years since its legendary introduction to the Han court in the first century, Buddhism has transformed not only people’s intellectual and practical lives but also the built environments of East Asia. From Mount Kunlun to the Japanese Isles, from the Mongolian prairie to the coasts of the South China Sea, mountains were carved for devotion and hermitic practices, cities were rebuilt for new religious life, and new architectural types were created to honor the relics of the enlightened ones and to cope with the evolving religion as it was gradually integrated with the local cultures. The articles in this Issue are aimed to capture the scope and diversity of Buddhist architecture in East Asia, and at the same time, to reflect the front lines of research in the field.

The scholarship on East Asian Buddhist architecture has been so far highly focused on famous temples, influential monasteries, and monumental landmarks. In this collection, while by no means bypassing those significant examples and topics, we try to restore a more balanced picture of Buddhist practice and the built environment by incorporating buildings and planning from the overlooked regions and aspects of Buddhism. We encourage contributions that feature shrines and temples in small villages as well as those in sacred mountains, forms reshaped by contemporary life as well as those of purer historical styles, and Buddhist practice in the domestic realm as well as those of pilgrimage significance.

The scholarship on East Asian Buddhist architecture has also been highly focused on the more publicized dominating cultures of China, Japan, and Korea. In this collection, we encourage discussions of examples from the neglected regions in the field and cultures of religious hybridity from those countries, as well as the rich and colorful Buddhist landscapes of Mongolia, Vietnam, etc. We are especially interested in the Buddhist architectural traditions along cultural borders, regions that used to be independent regimes in the past but are now within the borders of a modern country such as the ones named above (e.g., the Ryukyu Islands).

We also want to go beyond the well-established scholarships on stylistic changes, technical development of architectural carpentry, and the typological studies of halls and pagodas. We are especially interested in the way architecture is built for and shaped by the Buddhist practice of a given community, the way architecture is integrated into the spiritual life and material culture, and the way different art forms, both spatial and performing arts, share common themes and concepts with architecture to foster a comprehensive culture that sustains the life and identity of a place. These are significant issues not only for the scholarship on architectural history, but also meaningful for the contemporary building of our own life and faith.

Dr. Shuishan Yu
Dr. Aibin Yan
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Religions is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Buddhist architecture
east Asia
monastic practice
space for worship
Buddha halls
pagoda
stupa
Buddhist temples
Zen
Pure Land
Guanyin pavilion
esoteric
Mahayana
Theravada
sacred mountains
sacred landscape
Buddhist grottos
Buddhist caves

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 13022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Memories of Ups and Downs: The Vicissitudes of the Chongshansi in Taiyuan

by Jing Wen

Religions 2022, 13(9), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090785 - 26 Aug 2022

Viewed by 1491

Abstract

This article traces the erection of and changes in the Buddhist temple of Chongshansi in Taiyuan through the process of spatial production under the social background of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is stated that the founding time of the temple complies with the reorganization policies aimed at Buddhist institutions in the early Ming Dynasty, which confirms the setup of the Prefectural Buddhist Registry as the motivation for erecting the temple. Within the spatial structure of Taiyuan in the Ming Dynasty, its relative position with the Princely Palace of Jin (completed in 1375) and the expanded Taiyuan City is analyzed, revealing how its layout participated in the construction of the ritual path of Taiyuan under the control of the palace. The article concludes with a description of the fall of the temple following the loss of protection from the Jin Principality by tracing back its original form through the remains still evident in the city. The vicissitudes of the physical space of the temple are deeply connected to its role in the political space of the city. The article, thus, presents the changes in the temple throughout history. In positioning the temple back to the power and physical space of the imperial court, as well as the Jin Principality, a new perspective is provided into regional monasteries during the Ming Dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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28 pages, 8999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcending History: (Re)Building Longchang Monastery of Mount Baohua in the Seventeenth Century

by Zhenru Zhou

Religions 2022, 13(4), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13040285 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2309

Abstract

This paper analyzes the roles architectural renovation played in the revival of Longchang Monastery of Mount Baohua (Jiangsu), a major Chinese monastery of the Vinaya School and an ordination center in Late Imperial China. Based on temple gazetteers, monastic memoirs, and modern documentation of monastic architecture and life by Prip-Møller, the author reveals the formation of a spatial system that centered at the threefold ordination rituals. It took the entire seventeenth century for the system to take form under the supervision of a Chan monk-architect Miaofeng and three successive Vinaya abbots, Sanmei, Jianyue, and Ding’an. The spatial practices, comprising a series of reconstructions, reorientations, redesigns, re-demarcations, and refurbishments, have not only reconciled fractures and defects in the monastic architecture but also built a history for the rising institute. This article examines the construction of and the narratives around three centers of the Monastery, namely, the Open-Air Platform Unit where Miaofeng erected a copper hall, the Main Courtyard where Sanmei reoriented the monastic layout to follow the Vinaya tradition, the Ordination Platform Unit where Jianyue rebuilt a stone ordination platform, and again the Open-Air Platform Unit that Ding’an had refurbished and reunited with the later centers. The forces that have driven this seemingly non-progressive history, as the author argues, are not only the consistent efforts to counteract the natural course of material decay, but also the ambition of making a living history without beginning or end. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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19 pages, 11170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Remaining Buddhist Architecture in Fu’an, the Core Hinterland of the Changxi River Basin

by Jie Liu, Yincheng Jiang and Chen Cao

Religions 2021, 12(12), 1054; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121054 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2582

Abstract

The Changxi River Basin is a small root-like watershed, surrounded by mountains on three sides and facing the sea to the southeast. It is located on the border between Fujian and Zhejiang on the southeast coast of China. The area gave rise to the Changxi Culture that began in the Sui and Tang Dynasties and flourished in the Song Dynasty. Buddhism in the Changxi Basin was introduced no later than the 9th century. As the core hinterland of the Changxi Basin, Fu’an has always been an important center for Buddhism in Eastern Fujian. It reached its peak in the 10th to 13th centuries during the Song Dynasty. This article conducts a comprehensive investigation and study of the existing Buddhist temple sites and relics in Fu’an. It highlights these structures’ single-bay pattern of construction, based on rectangular plans in which the longitudinal axis extends along the plan’s direction of depth. This is a pattern rarely seen in the history of Chinese Buddhist architecture. The paper also summarizes a common element in these temples, their petal-shaped corrugated stone pillars which are divided into eight segments. Lastly, it illustrates the evolution of the temples in the Changxi River Basin from single-bay layouts to those with widths of multiple bays and indicates the unique status and associated values of single-bay Buddhist temples in the history of southern Buddhist architecture. The study examines new local findings and ideas for the study of Chinese Buddhist architectural history, providing academic support for the protection and research of Buddhist architectural heritage in Southeast China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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13 pages, 7887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Legends, Inspirations and Space: Landscape Sacralization of the Sacred Site Mount Putuo

by Yiwei Pan and Aibin Yan

Religions 2021, 12(12), 1050; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121050 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2318

Abstract

Mount Putuo in Zhejiang Province, China, is the most important holy land of Guanyin in East Asia. Landscape sacralization is a key modality by which sacred meaning is constructed. This paper takes several examples—the Tidal Sound Cave (“chaoyin dong” 潮音洞), the Well of the Immortal Mei (“Meixian jing” 梅仙井), the Well of Ge Hong (“Ge Hong jing” 葛洪井), the Well of the Immortal (“xianren jing” 仙人井), and Duangu Pier (“Duan Gu daotou” 短姑道頭)—to analyze the three types of processes of sacralization. The Tidal Sound Cave is a re-construction of the founding myths; Well of the Immortal Mei, the Well of Ge Hong and the Well of the Immortal reflect harmony between local legends of Daoist immortals and the sacred Buddhist site; and the Duangu Pier accomplished its sanctification process in the course of local pilgrimage activities. By sorting out the mechanism and process of landscape sanctification and exploring the generation and renewal of landscape meaning, we can observe the logic of the construction of this sacred site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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14 pages, 8339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Background of Stone Pagoda Construction in Ancient Japan

by Asei Satō

Religions 2021, 12(11), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12111001 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2651

Abstract

In this study stone pagodas from ancient Japan (7th to 9th centuries) were analyzed. The findings show that there are some apparently influenced by the Korean Peninsula and two other types. While there are examples of the former type that are large and serve as temple buildings, the latter are located in mountain forest temples. I am of the opinion that stone pagodas were important mechanisms that made possible the existence of mountain forest temples as Mahayana precepts-based transgression repentance (keka 悔過) training sites that complemented flatland temples. This use of stone pagodas is different than China and Korea, which treated both wooden and stone pagodas in the same way. Moreover, ideas regarding Mahayana precepts-based transgression repentance were introduced from China, and I hold that the increase in stone pagodas at mountain forest temples corresponds to the Sinicization of Japanese Buddhism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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30 pages, 11063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking the Proportional Design Principles of Timber-Framed Buddhist Buildings in the Goryeo Era

by Ju-Hwan Cha and Young-Jae Kim

Religions 2021, 12(11), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12110985 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2962

Abstract

This study examines how the wooden architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea evolved in an original way while incorporating Chinese architectural principles. For the Goryeo Era’s timber-framed buildings, eave purlin height was determined according to √2H times the eave column height (H), while the eave column height influenced the proportional location of each purlin, determined by the √2H times decrease rate in the cross-section. Thus, eave column height was proportionately connected to a geometric sequence with a common ratio of √2H. This technical approach, achieved using an L-square ruler and a drawing compass, contributed to determining eave purlin and ridge post placement, bracket system height, and outermost bay width. This study notes that the practical works were consistently preserved in East Asian Buddhist architecture, in that a universal rule of proportion was applied to buildings constructed during the Tang–Song and the Goryeo Dynasties, surmounting differences in local construction methods. These design principles were a vestige of socio-cultural exchange on the East Asian continent and a minimal step toward the establishment of structurally safe framed buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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27 pages, 2342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Struggle on the Axis: The Advance and Retreat of Buddhist Influences in the Political Axis of Capitals in Medieval China (220–907)

by Yifeng Xie

Religions 2021, 12(11), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12110984 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2704

Abstract

Buddhist influences on the sacred axis of the capital during Medieval China (220–907) underwent a process of starting with little impact during the era of Eastern Han, Caowei, and Western Jin (220–317) to a more prominent influence from the late Southern and Northern Dynasties (386–589) to early Tang (618–907), peaked during the reign of Wu Zetian (690–705), and roughly returned to the layout patterns from the late Southern and Northern Dynasties to early Tang after the death of Wu Zetian. As maintained below, the process appears complex in terms of the interaction between Buddhism and political space throughout early Medieval China. There are roughly two modes of integration and interaction between Buddhist buildings and ritual buildings with Buddhist influences and the political axis of the capital: the first mode can be regarded as a typical mode after its establishment in the late Northern Wei Dynasty. This mode exhibits major Buddhist influences, particularly regarding the huge scale of monasteries and pagodas, and the location of high-rise pagodas as landmarks flanking the political axis of the capital. The second mode should be regarded as an atypical mode occurring during the late period of Emperor Wu of the Liang (464–549, r. 502–549), the period of Northern Qi (550–577), and the reign of Wu Zetian. At this point, Buddhist buildings and imperial ritual buildings with Buddhist characteristics and symbolic meanings were placed directly on the political axis of the capital, close to or located at the core of the palace. This practice was a sign that the influence of Buddhism in the political culture and ideology of the entire empire during these eras of Emperor Wu of the Liang, the Northern Qi, and the reign of Wu Zetian had reached their culmination. Architecture reflected the most intuitive embodiment of an external visual form in presenting the most symbolic image of power. With the decline of political enthusiasm for advocating Buddhism, Buddhist and related buildings no longer occupied the political axis of the capital. Various forces majeure such as natural fires, demolition, and reconstruction by subsequent rulers also led to the demise of Buddhist influence on the pollical axis of capital architecture in subsequent eras. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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31 pages, 13113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Review of Worship Spaces in Buddhist and Cistercian Monasteries: The Three Temples of Guoqing Si (China) and the Church of the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet (Spain)

by Weiqiao Wang

Religions 2021, 12(11), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12110972 - 8 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3206

Abstract

Although the two parallel architectural forms, Han Buddhists and the Cistercian monasteries, seem, on the surface, to be very different—belonging to different religions, different cultural backgrounds, and different ways of construction—they share many similarities in the internal institutional model of monks’ lives and the corresponding architectural core values. The worship space plays the most significant role in both monastic life and layout. In this study, the Three Temples of Guoqing Si and the Church of the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet are used as examples to elucidate the connotations behind the architectural forms, in order to further explore how worship spaces serve as an intermediary between deities, monks, and pilgrims. Based on field research and experience of monastic life, this comparative study highlights two fundamental similarities between the Three Temples and the Church: First, both worship spaces are derived from imperial prototypes, have a similar priority of construction, occupy the most important place in both sacred venues, and both serve as a reference for the development of monastic layout. Second, both worship spaces are composed of a similar programmed functional layout, including similar space dominators as well as itineraries. Beyond the surface similarities, this article further analyzes the reasons behind the three differences found. Due to their different understanding of deities, both worship spaces show different ways of worship, images of deities, and distances towards them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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20 pages, 5051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Secular Dimensions of the Aśoka Stūpa from the Changgan Monastery of the Song Dynasty

by Yue Dai

Religions 2021, 12(11), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12110909 - 21 Oct 2021

Viewed by 2495

Abstract

In 2008, in the course of excavating the site of the pagoda foundations of the former Nanjing Da Bao’en Monastery 南京大報恩寺, archaeologists discovered Buddhist relics enshrined in nested reliquaries along with some two hundred offering objects. The most impressive finding was a specially designed, richly decorated reliquary stūpa, known as the Seven-Jeweled Aśoka Stūpa 七寶阿育王塔, created in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). This paper begins with the history of the site where a series of famous Buddhist structures had been built since the Wu Kingdom (222–280 CE), and which has long been associated with the cult of King Aśoka and relic worship. It then goes on to examine the form and features of the reliquary stūpas prevalent in the Wuyue period (907–978). Through comparisons between the Aśoka stūpas commissioned by Wuyue King Qian Chu 錢俶 (929–988) and those by laypeople around the same time, I will demonstrate that the Seven-Jeweled Aśoka Stūpa is distinct in its secular features. It is not a Buddhist reliquary that strictly conforms to the conventions of reliquary-making in terms of scale, inscription, and functionality; besides relic worship, it also features a remarkable manifestation of laypeople’s beliefs and expectations, sacred or secular. Viewed in its historical context, in which the Song emperors imposed political control over religious affairs and Buddhism became increasingly secular, the stūpa was a product of negotiation between the political authorities and local Buddhist communities in the Song Dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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26 pages, 13951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconstructing Pure Land Buddhist Architecture in Ancient East Asia

by Young-Jae Kim

Religions 2021, 12(9), 764; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090764 - 14 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5218

Abstract

Pure land comes from the Indian term “sukha,” which means welfare and happiness. However, in East Asia, Buddhism has been associated with the theological concepts of the immortal realm in the bond of death and afterlife. This study reviews detailed conception of Pure Land architecture in Sanskrit literature, as well as Buddhist sutras. The thesis notes that the conceptual explanation of Pure Land architecture, which describes the real world, becomes more concrete over time. Such detailed expression is revealed through the depiction of the transformation tableau. Hence, through Pure Land architecture situated on Earth, this research shows that Buddhist monks and laypeople hope for their own happy and wealthy settlement in the Pure Land. The building’s expression of transformation tableaux influences the layout and shape of Buddhist temples built in the mundane real world at that time. Moreover, this study notes that Bulguksa Monastery is a cumulative product of U-shaped central-axis arrangements with courtyards, terraced platforms, high-rise pavilions, and lotus ponds, plus an integrated synthesis of religious behaviors by votaries as a system of rituals. Further, it merges pre-Buddhist practices and other Buddhist subdivisions’ notions with Hwaeom thought, in comparison with Hojoji and Byodoin Temples that follow the Pure Land tradition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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32 pages, 9170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generating Sacred Space beyond Architecture: Stacked Stone Pagodas in Sixth-Century Northern China

by Jinchao Zhao

Religions 2021, 12(9), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090730 - 6 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4166

Abstract

A large number of stone blocks, stacked up in diminishing size to form pagodas, was discovered in northern China, primarily eastern Gansu and southeastern Shanxi. Their stylistic traits and inscriptions indicate the popularity of the practice of making stacked pagodas in the Northern dynasties (circa the fifth and sixth centuries CE). They display a variety of Buddhist imagery on surface, which is in contrast with the simplification of the structural elements. This contrast raises questions about how stone pagodas of the time were understood and how they related to contemporaneous pagoda buildings. This essay examines these stacked pagodas against the broader historical and artistic milieu, especially the practice of dedicating Buddhist stone implements, explores the way the stacked pagodas were made, displayed, and venerated, and discusses their religious significance generated beyond their structural resemblance to real buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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27 pages, 13066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Translation of Buddhism in the Funeral Architecture of Medieval China

by Shuishan Yu

Religions 2021, 12(9), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090690 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4812

Abstract

This article explores the Buddhist ritual and architectural conventions that were incorporated into the Chinese funeral architecture during the medieval period from the 3rd to the 13th centuries. A careful observation of some key types of sacred architectural forms from ancient East Asia, for instance, pagoda, lingtai, and hunping, reviews fundamental similarities in their form and structure. Applying translation theory rather than the influence and Sinicization model to analyze the impact of Buddhism on Chinese funeral architecture, this article offers a comparative study of the historical contexts from which certain architectural types and imageries were produced. It argues that there was an intertwined mutual translation of formal and ritual conventions between Buddhist and Chinese funeral architecture, which had played a significant role in the formations of both architectural traditions in Medieval China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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15 pages, 5903 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building and Rebuilding Buddhist Monasteries in Tang China: The Reconstruction of the Kaiyuan Monastery in Sizhou

by Anna Sokolova

Religions 2021, 12(4), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12040253 - 5 Apr 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3965

Abstract

This article explores regional Buddhist monasteries in Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) China, including their arrangement, functions, and sources for their study. Specifically, as a case study, it considers the reconstruction of the Kaiyuan monastery 開元寺 in Sizhou 泗州 (present-day Jiangsu Province) with reference to the works of three prominent state officials and scholars: Bai Juyi 白居易 (772–846), Li Ao 李翱 (772–841), and Han Yu 韓愈 (768–824). The writings of these literati allow us to trace the various phases of the monastery’s reconstruction, fundraising activities, and the network of individuals who participated in the project. We learn that the rebuilt multi-compound complex not only provided living areas for masses of pilgrims, traders, and workers but also functioned as a barrier that protected the populations of Sizhou and neighboring prefectures from flooding. Moreover, when viewed from a broader perspective, the renovation of the Kaiyuan monastery demonstrates that Buddhist construction projects played a pivotal role in the social and economic development of Tang China’s major metropolises as well as its regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Architecture in East Asia)

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