Journal Description
Receptors
Receptors
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on all aspects of receptors published quarterly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- Rapid Publication: first decisions in 16 days; acceptance to publication in 5.8 days (median values for MDPI journals in the first half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review and reviewer names are published annually in the journal.
- Receptors is a companion journal of Biomolecules.
Latest Articles
Nuclear Receptors: Mechanistic Insights into Endocrine Resistance in Prostate and Breast Cancers
Receptors 2024, 3(4), 444-456; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3040022 (registering DOI) - 14 Oct 2024
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This review focuses on the pivotal roles of nuclear receptors (NRs) in driving endocrine resistance in prostate and breast cancers. In prostate cancer (PCa), androgen receptor (AR) amplification, mutations, and altered coactivator interactions sustain tumor growth under androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), leading to
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This review focuses on the pivotal roles of nuclear receptors (NRs) in driving endocrine resistance in prostate and breast cancers. In prostate cancer (PCa), androgen receptor (AR) amplification, mutations, and altered coactivator interactions sustain tumor growth under androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), leading to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Orphan NRs like RORβ, TLX, and COUP-TFII further contribute to CRPC by regulating stemness and therapeutic resistance mechanisms. In breast cancer, NRs, including estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), androgen receptor (AR), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), and liver receptor homolog-1 (LRH-1), modulate estrogen signaling pathways and alternative survival mechanisms like PI3K/AKT/mTOR and NFκB, promoting resistance to endocrine therapies such as tamoxifen. Understanding these NR-mediated mechanisms is critical for developing targeted therapies to overcome endocrine resistance and improve patient outcomes in hormone-dependent cancers.
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Open AccessReview
Receptor-Based Strategies for Overcoming Resistance in Cancer Therapy
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Naresh Sah, Abdul Althaf Shaik, Ganesh Acharya, Manikantha Dunna, Ashok Silwal, Sejal Sharma, Sabiha Khan and Sounak Bagchi
Receptors 2024, 3(4), 425-443; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3040021 - 24 Sep 2024
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This review article explores the fundamental role of receptor targeting in overcoming drug resistance in cancer therapy, an area of critical concern given the persistently high rates of cancer morbidity and mortality globally. We highlight how receptor biology intersects with the development of
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This review article explores the fundamental role of receptor targeting in overcoming drug resistance in cancer therapy, an area of critical concern given the persistently high rates of cancer morbidity and mortality globally. We highlight how receptor biology intersects with the development of therapeutic resistance with a specific focus on anti-angiogenic agents, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and monoclonal antibodies, which directly or indirectly influence receptor pathways. We also explore how other receptor tyrosine kinases can initially suppress tumor growth, yet often lead to resistance, underscoring the need for novel combinatorial approaches that incorporate advanced receptor modulation techniques. Further, the review delves into the mechanisms by which modulation of the tumor microenvironment and immune system via receptor pathways can overcome resistance to traditional immunotherapies. Additionally, emerging technologies in receptor-targeted nanomedicine are also highlighted, showcasing their potential to revolutionize drug delivery and improve therapeutic outcomes by targeting specific receptor interactions. Ultimately, this review calls for a deeper understanding of receptor dynamics to develop more precise interventions, including insights from various healthcare settings that can prevent or circumvent drug resistance, thus enhancing patient outcomes in oncology.
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Open AccessReview
Protein SUMOylation and Its Functional Role in Nuclear Receptor Control
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Nele Wild, Charlotte Sophia Kaiser, Gerhard Wunderlich, Eva Liebau and Carsten Wrenger
Receptors 2024, 3(3), 408-424; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3030020 - 3 Sep 2024
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Post-translational protein modifications (PTMs) significantly enhance the functional diversity of proteins and are therefore important for the expansion and the dynamics of the cell’s proteome. In addition to structurally simpler PTMs, substrates also undergo modification through the reversible attachment of small proteins. The
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Post-translational protein modifications (PTMs) significantly enhance the functional diversity of proteins and are therefore important for the expansion and the dynamics of the cell’s proteome. In addition to structurally simpler PTMs, substrates also undergo modification through the reversible attachment of small proteins. The best understood PTM of this nature to date is the covalent conjugation of ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) to their substrates. The protein family of small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) is one of these UBLs that has received increasing scientific attention. The pathway of SUMOylation is highly conserved in all eukaryotic cells and is crucial for their survival. It plays an essential role in many biological processes, such as the maintenance of genomic integrity, transcriptional regulation, gene expression, and the regulation of intracellular signal transduction, and thereby influences DNA damage repair, immune responses, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis. Several studies have already shown that in this context protein SUMOylation is involved in the control mechanisms of various cellular receptors. This article unites data from different studies focusing on the investigation of the strictly conserved three-step enzyme cascade of protein SUMOylation and the functional analysis of the involved proteins E1, E2, and E3 and SUMOylation target proteins. Furthermore, this review highlights the role of nuclear receptor SUMOylation and its importance for the cellular functionality and disease development arising from defects in correct protein SUMOylation.
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Open AccessReview
The Role of the Vitamin D Receptor in the Epidermal Stem Cell Response to Wounding
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Daniel D. Bikle
Receptors 2024, 3(3), 397-407; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3030019 - 9 Aug 2024
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Chronic skin wounds are estimated to affect 6.5 million patients in the US, at a cost of over USD 25 billion. Efforts to prevent and/or treat such wounds will result in reduced morbidity and economic losses. This project is focused on the role
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Chronic skin wounds are estimated to affect 6.5 million patients in the US, at a cost of over USD 25 billion. Efforts to prevent and/or treat such wounds will result in reduced morbidity and economic losses. This project is focused on the role of vitamin D signaling in the epidermis in the control of stem cell (SC) activation and function during the initial response to the wounding of the skin, a response that, if defective, contributes to poor wound healing or cancer. In this review, I first describe the anatomy of the skin, focusing first on the epidermis, describing the different cell layers which in a spatial way also represent the differentiation process of the interfollicular epidermis (IFE) as it undergoes continuous regeneration. I then describe the other components of the skin, particularly the hair follicle (HF), which undergoes a cyclic pattern of regeneration. Adult SCs residing in these regenerative tissues play essential roles in the maintenance of these tissues. However, when the skin is wounded, the progeny of SCs from all regions of the HF and IFE contribute to the healing process by changing their initial cell fate to take on an epithelial genotype/phenotype to heal the wound. Although earlier lineage tracing studies helped to define the contributions SCs from the different niches made to wound healing, scRNAseq studies have demonstrated a considerably more nuanced picture. The role of vitamin D signaling will be introduced by reviewing the unique role played by the epidermal keratinocyte first in producing vitamin D and then in metabolizing it into its active form 1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D is the principal ligand for the vitamin D receptor (VDR), a transcription factor that helps to mediate the genomic changes in the stem cells in their response to wounding. In these actions, the VDR is regulated by coregulators, of which the steroid receptor coactivator complexes SRC 2 and 3 and the mediator complex (MED) play essential roles. The VDR generally acts in association with other transcription factors such as p63 and β-catenin that can colocalize with the VDR in the genes it regulates. Although much remains to be understood, the role of the VDR in the stem cell response to wounding is clearly essential and quite different from its classic roles in regulating calcium metabolism, although calcium is essential for the actions of vitamin D signaling in the skin.
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Open AccessArticle
Comparison of Agonist Activity between CB1 and CB2 Receptors with Orthosteric Site Mutations
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Christina A. Brust, Matthew A. Swanson, Christos Iliopoulos Tsoutsouvas, Snezana T. Dimova, Vuong Q. Dang, Edward L. Stahl, Jo-Hao Ho, Spyros P. Nikas, Alexandros Makriyannis and Laura M. Bohn
Receptors 2024, 3(3), 380-396; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3030018 - 6 Aug 2024
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Human endocannabinoid signaling is primarily mediated by the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, which are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). These receptors have been linked to a variety of physiological processes and are being pursued as prospective drug targets due to their potential in
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Human endocannabinoid signaling is primarily mediated by the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, which are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). These receptors have been linked to a variety of physiological processes and are being pursued as prospective drug targets due to their potential in treating pain and inflammation. However, because of their homology and shared signaling mechanisms, investigating the individual physiological roles of these receptors and designing subtype-selective ligands has been challenging. Using active-state CB1 and CB2 structures as guides, homologous residues within the orthosteric pocket of each receptor were mutated to alanine to test whether they equally impair CB1 and CB2 activity in response to two high-affinity, nonselective agonists (CP55,940 and AM12033). Interestingly, mutating the Y5.39 position impairs CB1 but not CB2 function. Conversely, mutating residue C6.47 improves CB1 but impairs CB2 signaling. The F7.35A mutation leads to a decrease in CP55,940 potency at CB1 and impairs internalization; however, AM12033 gains potency and promotes CB1 internalization. In CB2, mutation of F7.35A decreases the potency of CP55,940 and neither agonist induces internalization. These observations provide some insight into functional sensitivity of CB1 and CB2 to different agonists when conserved residues are mutated in the orthosteric pocket.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Cannabinoid Receptor Signaling Complexity: Keys for Improved Therapeutic Drug Development)
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Current Evidence of Natural Products against Overweight and Obesity: Molecular Targets and Mechanisms of Action
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Cristina Alicia Elizalde-Romero, Nayely Leyva-López, Laura Aracely Contreras-Angulo, Rigoberto Cabanillas Ponce de-León, Libia Zulema Rodriguez-Anaya, Josefina León-Félix, J. Basilio Heredia, Saul Armando Beltrán-Ontiveros and Erick Paul Gutiérrez-Grijalva
Receptors 2024, 3(3), 362-379; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3030017 - 11 Jul 2024
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Overweight and obesity are global health and economic concerns. This disease can affect every system of the human body and can lead to complications such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes, cancer, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular diseases, and hypertension, among others. Treatment may sometimes include diet, exercise,
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Overweight and obesity are global health and economic concerns. This disease can affect every system of the human body and can lead to complications such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes, cancer, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular diseases, and hypertension, among others. Treatment may sometimes include diet, exercise, drugs, and bariatric surgery. Nonetheless, not all people have access to these treatments, and public health strategies consider prevention the most important factor. In this regard, recent investigations are aiming to find alternatives and adjuvants for the treatment of obesity, its prevention, and the reversion of some of its complications, using natural sources of anti-obesogenic compounds like polyphenols, terpenes, alkaloids, and saponins, among others. In this review, we gather the most current information using PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Cochrane, and the Web of Science. We present and discuss the current information about natural products that have shown anti-obesogenic effects at a molecular level. We also consider the impact of dietary habits and lifestyle on preventing overweight and obesity due to the evidence of the benefits of certain foods and compounds consumed regularly. We discuss mechanisms, pathways, and receptors involved in the modulation of obesity, especially those related to inflammation and oxidative stress linked to this disease, due to the relevance of these two aspects in developing complications.
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Receptor-Targeted Nanomedicine for Cancer Therapy
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Arvee Prajapati, Shagun Rangra, Rashmi Patil, Nimeet Desai, Vaskuri G. S. Sainaga Jyothi, Sagar Salave, Prakash Amate, Derajram Benival and Nagavendra Kommineni
Receptors 2024, 3(3), 323-361; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3030016 - 3 Jul 2024
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Receptor-targeted drug delivery has been extensively explored for active targeting of therapeutic moiety in cancer treatment. In this review, we discuss the receptors that are overexpressed on tumor cells and have the potential to be targeted by nanocarrier systems for cancer treatment. We
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Receptor-targeted drug delivery has been extensively explored for active targeting of therapeutic moiety in cancer treatment. In this review, we discuss the receptors that are overexpressed on tumor cells and have the potential to be targeted by nanocarrier systems for cancer treatment. We also highlight the different types of nanocarrier systems and targeting ligands that researchers have explored. Our discussion covers various therapeutic modalities, including small molecules, aptamers, peptides, antibodies, and cell-based targeting strategies, and focuses on clinical developments. Additionally, this article highlights the challenges that arise during the clinical translation of nanocarrier-based targeting strategies. It also provides future directions for improving research in the area of clinically translatable cancer-targeted therapy to improve treatment efficacy while minimizing toxicity.
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Open AccessReview
Targeting Liver X Receptors in Cancer Drug Discovery
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Asitha Premaratne, Abhinav Bagchi, Shinjini Basu, Jan-Åke Gustafsson and Chin-Yo Lin
Receptors 2024, 3(3), 304-322; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3030015 - 29 Jun 2024
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Liver X receptors (LXRs) are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-dependent transcription factors. LXRα is predominantly expressed in metabolic tissues, whereas LXRβ is ubiquitously expressed. Upon ligand binding, they regulate the expression of target genes involved in lipid metabolism, cholesterol homeostasis,
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Liver X receptors (LXRs) are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-dependent transcription factors. LXRα is predominantly expressed in metabolic tissues, whereas LXRβ is ubiquitously expressed. Upon ligand binding, they regulate the expression of target genes involved in lipid metabolism, cholesterol homeostasis, and immune responses, including those which function in pathways that are commonly reprogrammed during carcinogenesis. Known LXR ligands include oxysterols and natural and synthetic agonists which upregulate LXR transcriptional activity and target gene expression. Synthetic inverse agonists have also been identified that inhibit LXR activity. While both types of ligands have been shown to inhibit cancer cells and tumor growth either directly or indirectly by modulating the activities of stromal cells within the tumor microenvironment, they appear to target different aspects of cancer metabolism and other cancer hallmarks, including immune evasion. This review summarizes the characterization of LXRs and their ligands and their mechanisms of action in cancer models and discusses the future directions for translating these discoveries into novel cancer therapeutics.
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Open AccessReview
Receptors Implicated in Microgravity-Induced Bone Loss
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Elizabeth Ferreira Martinez, André Antonio Pelegrine and L. Shannon Holliday
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 280-303; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020014 - 13 Jun 2024
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For humans to explore and colonize the universe, both engineering and physiological obstacles must be successfully addressed. A major physiological problem is that humans lose bone rapidly in microgravity. Understanding the underlying mechanisms for this bone loss is crucial for designing strategies to
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For humans to explore and colonize the universe, both engineering and physiological obstacles must be successfully addressed. A major physiological problem is that humans lose bone rapidly in microgravity. Understanding the underlying mechanisms for this bone loss is crucial for designing strategies to ameliorate these effects. Because bone physiology is entangled with other organ systems, and bone loss is a component of human adaptation to microgravity, strategies to reduce bone loss must also account for potential effects on other systems. Here, we consider the receptors involved in normal bone remodeling and how this regulation is altered in low-gravity environments. We examine how single cells, tissues and organs, and humans as a whole are affected by low gravity, and the role of receptors that have been implicated in responses leading to bone loss. These include receptors linking cells to the extracellular matrix and to each other, alterations in the extracellular matrix associated with changes in gravity, and changes in fluid distribution and fluid behavior due to lack of gravity that may have effects on receptor-based signaling shared by bone and other regulatory systems. Inflammatory responses associated with the environment in space, which include microgravity and radiation, can also potentially trigger bone loss.
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Open AccessReview
Deciphering the Role of Virus Receptors in Plant–Virus–Vector Interactions
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Sumit Jangra, Senthilraja Chinnaiah, Sneha Rashtrapal Patil, Bhavya Shukla, Ragunathan Devendran and Manish Kumar
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 255-279; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020013 - 3 Jun 2024
Cited by 2
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Insect-transmitted plant viruses are a major threat to global agricultural crop production. Receptors play a prominent role in the interplay between host-pathogen and vector interaction. The virus–vector relationship involves both viral and vector receptors. Receptors-like kinases (RLKs) and receptor-like proteins play a crucial
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Insect-transmitted plant viruses are a major threat to global agricultural crop production. Receptors play a prominent role in the interplay between host-pathogen and vector interaction. The virus–vector relationship involves both viral and vector receptors. Receptors-like kinases (RLKs) and receptor-like proteins play a crucial role in plant immunity, which acts as a basal defense. Pathogens can evade or block host recognition by their effector proteins to inhibit pathogen recognition receptor (PRR)-mediated signaling. Intriguingly, RLKs are also known to interact with viral proteins and impact plant susceptibility against viruses, while the endocytic receptors in vectors assist in the binding of the virus to the vectors. Unlike other receptors of fungi and bacteria which have three different domains located from extracellular or intracellular to perceive a multitude of molecular patterns, the characterization of viral receptors is quite complex and limited since the virus is directly injected into plant cells by insect vectors. Little is known about these receptors. Unraveling the receptors involved in virus entry and transmission within the vector will provide vital information in virus–vector interactions. This review focuses on efforts undertaken in the identification and characterization of receptors of plant viruses within the host and vector. This will lead to a better understanding of the cellular mechanism of virus transmission and spread, and further suggests new alternative tools for researchers to develop an integrated approach for the management of viral diseases and associated vectors.
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Open AccessReview
The G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor GPER in the Development and Progression of Cancer
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Liliana Torres-López, Miguel Olivas-Aguirre and Oxana Dobrovinskaya
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 220-254; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020012 - 27 May 2024
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The high incidence of cancer and the prevalence of chemoresistance are serious problems worldwide, underscoring the urgency of novel research focused on understanding the underlying mechanisms and finding new therapeutic targets. Recently, the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) has received increasing attention, and
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The high incidence of cancer and the prevalence of chemoresistance are serious problems worldwide, underscoring the urgency of novel research focused on understanding the underlying mechanisms and finding new therapeutic targets. Recently, the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) has received increasing attention, and it has been studied in various models, including physiological and pathological conditions, using appropriate pharmacological and molecular biological strategies. Numerous studies indicate that GPER plays an important role in cancer progression and resistance. This review focuses on the structure of GPER, the diversity of its ligands and GPER-activated signaling pathways, the role of GPER in cancer progression, and mechanisms of chemoresistance, with special emphasis on different cancer types and the tumor microenvironment. GPER was evidenced to exhibit conformational plasticity and different ligand binding modes. Therefore, GPER-mediated effects can be triggered by estrogens or various estrogen mimetics, including synthesized compounds, licensed drugs, or exogenous environmental compounds. We found multiple reports evidencing that GPER is differentially expressed in healthy tissues and tumors and plays a protumor role in breast, ovarian, lung, thyroid, and endometrial cancers. Additionally, there are several studies that indicate that GPER expression in cells of the tumor microenvironment may also contribute to cancer progression. Among the major mechanisms of GPER-mediated chemoresistance are the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, the overexpression of multidrug resistance pumps, and autophagy regulation.
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Open AccessArticle
An Evaluation of the Anxiolytic Potential of Amentoflavone in Adult Zebrafish Undergoing Alcohol Withdrawal: In Vivo and In Silico Studies
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Lucas Soares Frota, Wildson Max Barbosa da Silva, Daniela Ribeiro Alves, Sacha Aubrey Alves Rodrigues Santos, Gabriela Alves do Nascimento, Francisco Ernani Alves Magalhães, Adriana Rolim Campos and Selene Maia de Morais
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 201-219; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020011 - 10 May 2024
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The constant use of alcoholic beverages can deregulate serotonin levels, affecting neurotransmitters and triggering symptoms of anxiety. In this context, the objective of this work was to evaluate the anxiolytic potential and possible action mechanisms of the natural compound amentoflavone against the deleterious
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The constant use of alcoholic beverages can deregulate serotonin levels, affecting neurotransmitters and triggering symptoms of anxiety. In this context, the objective of this work was to evaluate the anxiolytic potential and possible action mechanisms of the natural compound amentoflavone against the deleterious effects caused by alcohol withdrawal on the behavior of adult zebrafish (aZF). The experiments showed that amentoflavone did not change locomotion and did not cause toxicity in aZF during up to 96 h of analysis, with a median lethal concentration (LC50) greater than 1.0 mg/mL. The reversal of anxiety by pretreatment with granisetron suggested that the anxiolytic effect of amentoflavone is dependent on serotonergic 5-HT3A/3B receptors. Furthermore, amentoflavone reversed anxiety due to flumazenil pretreatment, suggesting a dependence on the GABAA receptor. The three concentrations of amentoflavone tested were effective in treating anxiety resulting from alcohol withdrawal. In silico analysis validated the in vivo results, supporting the idea that the interaction of amentoflavone with the protein occurs in a more stable manner than reference compounds. Amid growing interest in natural alternatives to treat anxiety disorders, amentoflavone is a potential candidate for a new anxiolytic compound that acts specifically on the 5HT3A/3B and GABAergic serotonergic pathways.
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Open AccessReview
Estrogen Signals through ERβ in Breast Cancer; What We Have Learned since the Discovery of the Receptor
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Harika Nagandla and Christoforos Thomas
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 182-200; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020010 - 3 May 2024
Cited by 1
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Estrogen receptor (ER) β (ERβ) is the second ER subtype that mediates the effects of estrogen in target tissues along with ERα that represents a validated biomarker and target for endocrine therapy in breast cancer. ERα was the only known ER subtype until
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Estrogen receptor (ER) β (ERβ) is the second ER subtype that mediates the effects of estrogen in target tissues along with ERα that represents a validated biomarker and target for endocrine therapy in breast cancer. ERα was the only known ER subtype until 1996 when the discovery of ERβ opened a new chapter in endocrinology and prompted a thorough reevaluation of the estrogen signaling paradigm. Unlike the oncogenic ERα, ERβ has been proposed to function as a tumor suppressor in breast cancer, and extensive research is underway to uncover the full spectrum of ERβ activities and elucidate its mechanism of action. Recent studies have relied on new transgenic models to capture effects in normal and malignant breast that were not previously detected. They have also benefited from the development of highly specific synthetic ligands that are used to demonstrate distinct mechanisms of gene regulation in cancer. As a result, significant new information about the biology and clinical importance of ERβ is now available, which is the focus of discussion in the present article.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nuclear Receptors: Honorary Special Issue Commemorating the Work of Prof. Jan-Åke Gustafsson)
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Open AccessReview
Dopamine D1–D5 Receptors in Brain Nuclei: Implications for Health and Disease
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Ichiro Kawahata, David I. Finkelstein and Kohji Fukunaga
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 155-181; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020009 - 12 Apr 2024
Cited by 3
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Understanding the intricate role of dopamine D1–D5 receptors is pivotal in addressing the challenges posed by the aging global population, as well as by social stress and advancing therapeutic interventions. Central to diverse brain functions such as movement, cognition, motivation, and reward, dopamine
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Understanding the intricate role of dopamine D1–D5 receptors is pivotal in addressing the challenges posed by the aging global population, as well as by social stress and advancing therapeutic interventions. Central to diverse brain functions such as movement, cognition, motivation, and reward, dopamine receptors are ubiquitously distributed across various brain nuclei. This comprehensive review explores the nuanced functions of each dopamine receptor, D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5, in distinct brain regions, elucidating the alterations witnessed in several neurological and psychiatric disorders. From the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, crucial for motor control and reward processing, to the limbic system influencing emotional responses, motivation, and cognitive functions, each brain nucleus reveals a specific involvement of dopamine receptors. In addition, genetic variations in dopamine receptors affect the risk of developing schizophrenia and parkinsonism. The review further investigates the physiological significance and pathogenic impacts of dopamine receptors in critical areas like the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, and striatum. By unraveling the complexities of dopamine receptor biology, especially those focused on different brain nuclei, this review provides a foundation for understanding their varied roles in health and disease, which is essential for the development of targeted therapeutic strategies aimed at mitigating the impact of aging and mental health on neurological well-being.
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Open AccessReview
Exploring Emerging Therapeutic Targets and Opportunities in Neuroendocrine Tumors: Updates on Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
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Lara Toffoli, Angeliki Ditsiou and Teresa Gagliano
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 145-154; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020008 - 5 Apr 2024
Cited by 1
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Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) represent a diverse group of neoplasms originating from neuroendocrine cells, presenting varied clinical behaviors and posing significant challenges in management. This review explores the emerging roles of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) in the pathogenesis and progression of NETs, including vascular
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Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) represent a diverse group of neoplasms originating from neuroendocrine cells, presenting varied clinical behaviors and posing significant challenges in management. This review explores the emerging roles of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) in the pathogenesis and progression of NETs, including vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs), insulin-like growth factor receptors (IGF-1R), RET, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and ALK. The dysregulation of RTK signaling pathways contributes to key cellular processes such as proliferation, survival, and invasion in NETs. We discuss the potential of targeting RTKs as therapeutic strategies in NETs, with a focus on recent developments in RET inhibitors and the therapeutic implications of RTK alterations.
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Open AccessReview
Molecular Targets for Cannabinoids in Natural Killer Cells: Do They Modulate the Antitumor Activity?
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Miguel Olivas-Aguirre, Cecilia Gutiérrez-Iñiguez, Igor Pottosin and Oxana Dobrovinskaya
Receptors 2024, 3(2), 122-144; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3020007 - 25 Mar 2024
Cited by 2
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Recent research has emphasized the potential of natural and synthetic cannabinoids as anticancer agents. Yet it remains unclear whether and in which sense cannabinoids affect the anticancer activity of NK cells, an important branch of anticancer immunity. Similar uncertainty exists regarding NK cells-based
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Recent research has emphasized the potential of natural and synthetic cannabinoids as anticancer agents. Yet it remains unclear whether and in which sense cannabinoids affect the anticancer activity of NK cells, an important branch of anticancer immunity. Similar uncertainty exists regarding NK cells-based immunotherapy. Here we presented an overview of multiple cannabinoid targets as canonical (mainly CB2) and non-canonical receptors, ion channels, transporters, and enzymes, expressed in NK cells, along with underlying molecular mechanisms. Through them, cannabinoids can affect viability, proliferation, migration, cytokine production, and the overall anticancer activity of NK cells. Respective holistic studies are limited, and, mostly, are phenomenological, not linking observed effects with certain molecular targets. Another problem of existing studies is the lack of standardisation, so that diverse cannabinoids at variable concentrations and ways of administration are applied, and often, instead of purified NK cells, the whole lymphocyte population is used. Therefore, there is an urgent need for more focused, systemic, and in-depth studies of the impact of the cannabinoid toolkit on NK cell function, to critically address the compatibility and potential synergies between NK activity and cannabinoid utilization in the realm of anticancer interventions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Cannabinoid Receptor Signaling Complexity: Keys for Improved Therapeutic Drug Development)
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Fundamental Mechanisms in Membrane Receptology: Old Paradigms, New Concepts and Perspectives
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Jacques Fantini
Receptors 2024, 3(1), 107-121; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3010006 - 18 Mar 2024
Cited by 1
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Receptology, the science of receptors, is a multidimensional field of research which can be dissected into biosynthesis, membrane sorting, ligand binding and signal transduction. Plasma membrane receptors connect the cells with their environment and transmit signals that are translated into biological information. The
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Receptology, the science of receptors, is a multidimensional field of research which can be dissected into biosynthesis, membrane sorting, ligand binding and signal transduction. Plasma membrane receptors connect the cells with their environment and transmit signals that are translated into biological information. The historical paradigm of ligand–receptor interactions is the lock-and-key model. This model presupposes that both partners have a precise 3D shape that perfectly fits together to form the ligand–receptor complex. However, this simple model suffers from severe limitations due to several levels of simplifications: (i) water molecules and membrane lipids are not considered; (ii) not all ligands have a stable 3D structure; (iii) the ligand-binding pocket of the receptor is often flexible and conformationally rearranged after the initial binding step (induced fit mechanism) and/or subjected to conformational selection by the ligand; (iv) there are signal transduction mechanisms which can be either purely mechanical (conformational change of the receptor induced after binding of the ligand), lipid-assisted (e.g., by raft lipids such as cholesterol or gangliosides), or in some instances of quantic nature (detection of odorant molecules). The aim of the present review is to challenge the old paradigms and present new concepts of membrane receptology that consider the impact of critical parameters such as water molecules, membrane lipids, electrostatic surface potential and quantum mechanisms.
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Open AccessReview
Role and Function of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases in BRAF Mutant Cancers
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Bernhard Biersack, Lubna Tahtamouni and Michael Höpfner
Receptors 2024, 3(1), 58-106; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3010005 - 4 Mar 2024
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The development of potent BRAF inhibitors has revolutionized the treatment of BRAF mutant cancers, in particular, melanomas. However, BRAF mutant cancers of other entities, e.g., colorectal cancers, display distinctly reduced responses to BRAF inhibitors. In addition, the emergence of cancer resistance to BRAF
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The development of potent BRAF inhibitors has revolutionized the treatment of BRAF mutant cancers, in particular, melanomas. However, BRAF mutant cancers of other entities, e.g., colorectal cancers, display distinctly reduced responses to BRAF inhibitors. In addition, the emergence of cancer resistance to BRAF inhibitor treatment poses a severe problem. The reactivation of MAPK/ERK signaling was identified as an important mode of BRAF inhibitor resistance. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), which are prominent anticancer drug targets in their own right, play a crucial role in the development of drug resistance to BRAF inhibitors and the reactivation of MAPK/ERK signal transduction, as well as the establishment of bypassing signaling pathways. MAPK reactivation can occur via increased expression of RTKs, altered RTK signaling, and post-translational processes, among others. This review summarizes the influence of pertinent RTKs on BRAF mutant cancers and BRAF inhibitor resistance and outlines possible and proven ways to circumvent BRAF-associated resistance mechanisms.
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Open AccessArticle
D1-Like and D2-Like Dopamine Receptors in the Rat Prefrontal Cortex: Impacts of Genetic Generalized Epilepsies and Social Behavioral Deficits
by
Lidia M. Birioukova, Gilles van Luijtelaar and Inna S. Midzyanovskaya
Receptors 2024, 3(1), 36-57; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3010004 - 20 Feb 2024
Abstract
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The involvement of the prefrontal cortical dopaminergic system in the psychopathology of epilepsies and comorbid conditions such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) still needs to be explored. We used autoradiography to study the D1-like (D1DR) and D2-like (D2DR) receptor binding density in the
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The involvement of the prefrontal cortical dopaminergic system in the psychopathology of epilepsies and comorbid conditions such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) still needs to be explored. We used autoradiography to study the D1-like (D1DR) and D2-like (D2DR) receptor binding density in the prefrontal cortex of normal Wistar rats and Wistar-derived strains with generalized convulsive and/or non-convulsive epilepsy. WAG/Rij rats served as a model for non-convulsive absence epilepsy, WAG/Rij-AGS as a model of mixed convulsive/non-convulsive form, and KM strain was a model for convulsive epilepsy comorbid with an ASD-like behavioral phenotype. The prefrontal cortex of rats with any epileptic pathology studied demonstrated profound decreases in binding densities to both D1DR and D2DR; the effects were localized in the primary and secondary anterior cingulate cortices, and adjacent regions. The local decreased D1DR and D2DR binding densities were independent of (not correlated with) each other. The particular group of epileptic rats with an ASD-like phenotype (KM strain) displayed changes in the lateral prefrontal cortex: D1DR were lowered, whereas D2DR were elevated, in the dysgranular insular cortex and adjacent regions. Thus, epilepsy-related changes in the dopaminergic system of the rat archeocortex were localized in the medial prefrontal regions, whereas ASD-related changes were seen in the lateral prefrontal aspects. The findings point to putative local dopaminergic dysfunctions, associated with generalized epilepsies and/or ASD.
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Open AccessPerspective
The Glucocorticoid Receptor’s tau1c Activation Domain 35 Years on—Making Order out of Disorder
by
Anthony P. H. Wright
Receptors 2024, 3(1), 27-35; https://doi.org/10.3390/receptors3010003 - 5 Feb 2024
Abstract
Almost exactly 35 years after starting to work with the human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR), it is interesting for me to re-evaluate the data and results obtained in the 1980s–1990s with the benefit of current knowledge. What was understood then and how can modern
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Almost exactly 35 years after starting to work with the human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR), it is interesting for me to re-evaluate the data and results obtained in the 1980s–1990s with the benefit of current knowledge. What was understood then and how can modern perspectives increase that understanding? The hGR’s tau1c activation domain that we delineated was an enigmatic protein domain. It was apparently devoid of secondary and tertiary protein structures but nonetheless maintained gene activation activity in the absence of other hGR domains, not only in human cells but also in yeast, which is evolutionarily very divergent from humans and which does not contain hGR or other nuclear receptors. We now know that the basic machinery of cells is much more conserved across evolution than was previously thought, so the hGR’s tau1c domain was able to utilise transcription machinery components that were conserved between humans and yeast. Further, we can now see that structure–function aspects of the tau1c domain conform to a general mechanistic framework, such as the acidic exposure model, that has been proposed for many activation domains. As for many transcription factor activation domains, it is now clear that tau1c activity requires regions of transient secondary structure. We now know that there is a tendency for positive Darwinian selection to target intrinsically disordered protein domains. It will be interesting to study the distribution and nature of the many single nucleotide variants of the hGR in this respect.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nuclear Receptors: Honorary Special Issue Commemorating the Work of Prof. Jan-Åke Gustafsson)
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