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Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 7507

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Editors

Dr. Cristina-Elisabeta Pelin

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Guest Editor

National Institute for Aerospace Research “Elie Carafoli”—INCAS, Bucharest, Romania
Interests: polymeric composites; nanocomposites; aerospace materials; circular economy; sustainability; mechanical properties; chemical compatibility
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Anton Ficai

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Guest Editor

Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Gh. Polizu St., 011061 Bucharest, Romania
Interests: bio(nano)materials; synthesis methods; material processing and design; advanced coatings; tissue engineering; drug delivery; characterization methods
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the last decade, additive manufacturing’s ability to produce customized parts with complex shapes has led to an increased global demand for this technology as a manufacturing solution in various fields of engineering, from consumer goods, medicine, electronics, and construction to automotives and aerospace. Three-dimensional-printing-based technologies using polymeric materials offer cost-effectiveness, customized geometries, complex design, high-precision manufacturing, and reduced processing time while using highly sustainable materials.

Following the success of the first and second editions, we are delighted to launch this third edition to continue exploring cutting-edge advancements in this field.

e.g., "Review the 1st Edition and 2nd Edition of this series."

This Special Issue aims to collate the latest research in the field of 3D-printed polymers designed for application in fields in which this technology attracts the most attention and interest. We welcome the submission of papers that implement experimental or simulation approaches to overcome challenges in polymer and polymeric composite 3D printing techniques that are encountered in each engineering field. Overcoming 3D printing challenges will greatly contribute to advancing development in topics related to transport, engineering, medicine, and the environment. This Special Issue aims to focus on both fundamental and applied research that revolves around the development, characterization, and application of polymers for 3D printing technologies implemented in, but not limited to, the aerospace, automotive, construction, medicine, prototyping, and consumer goods industries (including electronics, sports, devices, spare parts, etc.).

Dr. Cristina-Elisabeta Pelin
Prof. Dr. Anton Ficai
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

3D printing
thermoplastic polymers
thermoset polymers
polymeric (nano)composites
additive manufacturing methods and processing
mechanical properties
transport applications
medical applications
rapid prototyping
3D printing design solutions

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 3045 KB

Open AccessArticle

3D Printing of Block Copolymer-Based Fracture Tough Denture Base Materials

by Kai Rist, Iris Lamparth, Sadini Omeragic, Lauren Geurds, Benjamin Grob and Yohann Catel

Polymers 2026, 18(13), 1660; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18131660 - 4 Jul 2026

Viewed by 377

Abstract

The development of 3D printing high-impact denture bases is challenging, as materials exhibiting both high flexural strength/modulus and fracture toughness are required. Nowadays, most of the commercially available 3D printing denture bases contain significant amounts of crosslinking monomers and therefore behave as brittle materials. In this contribution, urethane dimethacrylate DMA1/(octahydro-4,7-methano-1H-indenyl)methyl acrylate (OMIMA) 1/1 (wt/wt) formulations containing a poly(ε-caprolactone)-polydimethylsiloxane-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL-PDMS-PCL) triblock copolymer (BCP1) and fumed silica SiO₂-NPs were evaluated for DLP 3D printing of fracture-tough denture bases. The post-curing step was performed at various temperatures (RT, 60 °C, 80 °C, 100 °C and 120 °C). This parameter was shown to strongly influence the T_g and mechanical properties of 3D printed materials. A post-curing temperature of 100 °C was found to be ideal. Under these conditions, 3D printed materials exhibiting excellent mechanical properties were successfully obtained. Furthermore, the amounts of BCP1 and SiO₂-NPs were varied. The formulation containing 8.0 wt% of BCP1 and 10.0 wt% of SiO₂-NPs (FS = 67.5 ± 1.3 MPa, FM = 2450 ± 71 MPa, K_max = 2.11 ± 0.06 MPa m^1/2, W_f = 1109 ± 19 J m⁻²) was able to fulfill the ISO 20795-1:2013 requirements in terms of flexural strength (FS)/modulus (FM) and fracture toughness for denture bases with improved impact resistance (FS > 65 MPa, FM > 2000 MPa, K_max > 1.9 MPa m^1/2, W_f > 900 J m⁻²). This material showed better performance than the commercially available formulations Printodent^® GR-14.2 denture HI (FS = 69.2 ± 1.8 MPa, FM = 2153 ± 76 MPa, K_max = 0.82 ± 0.04 MPa m^1/2, W_f = 79 ± 10 J m⁻²) and Lucitone Digital Print^TM 3D denture base (FS = 56.7 ± 1.9 MPa, FM = 2144 ± 12 MPa, K_max = 1.92 ± 0.09 MPa m^1/2, W_f = 1272 ± 177 J m⁻²). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition)

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21 pages, 5265 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing Natural Fillers as Substitutes for Glass Fibers in Polyamide 6 Composites for Large-Format Additive Manufacturing

by Alessandro Sorze, Francesco Valentini, Sofia Santi, Matteo Perini, Nicole Soligo, Mauro Buccella, Laura Pasquardini and Andrea Dorigato

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091049 - 26 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1127

Abstract

This work investigated the potential of different natural fillers, i.e., clay, calcium carbonate, and silica, as sustainable alternatives to glass fibers (GFs) in polyamide 6 (PA6) for Large-Format Additive Manufacturing (LFAM) applications in order to guarantee the chemical recyclability of the produced materials. Specifically, PA6-based composites containing ≤ 10 wt% natural fillers were compared with a conventional system (30 wt% GF-reinforced PA6) from rheological, morphological and thermo-mechanical perspectives. Rheological analysis showed that silica- and clay-filled samples displayed similar rheological response to the GF-filled reference due to their large particle size. Thermal analyses revealed a slight increase in crystallinity (up to 32%) for filled samples, indicating a potential nucleating effect of the natural fillers. Calcium carbonate-filled composites achieved thermal conductivity values comparable to the GF-filled reference (≥0.42 W/mK) indicating a high heat dissipation capability during printing operations. Morphological analysis performed on preliminary LFAM components revealed satisfactory printing quality and good filler dispersion. Flexural tests showed that silica and calcium carbonate could provide a balanced mechanical response, thereby reducing the anisotropy of printed components. These results demonstrated that the addition of suitable natural fillers at limited concentrations (≤10 wt%) can represent a lightweight and eco-sustainable alternative to GF reinforcement in LFAM applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition)

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23 pages, 5903 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation and Optimization of Thermoplastic Extrusion Parameters to Improve the Dimensional Accuracy of Additively Manufactured Parts Made of PETG, Recycled PETG, ASA, and Recycled ASA

by Dragos Gabriel Zisopol, Mihail Minescu and Dragos Valentin Iacob

Polymers 2026, 18(5), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18050573 - 27 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 840

Abstract

As additive manufacturing (AM) expands into high-end industries, ensuring both technical performance and dimensional accuracy remains a challenge. This paper addresses the challenge of integrating recycled materials into the field of plastic extrusion additive manufacturing technologies by conducting a study on the evaluation and optimization of thermoplastic extrusion parameters to improve the dimensional accuracy of additively manufactured parts from virgin and recycled polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG, rPETG) and acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA), both in virgin and recycled form. To carry out the study, 180 three-point bending specimens were additively manufactured on the QIDI Q1 Pro 3D printer by thermoplastic extrusion of PETG, rPETG, ASA, rASA (45 specimens for each type of material), using the following variable parameters: layer height deposited in one pass L_h = (0.10–0.20) mm and filling percentage—I_d = (50–100)%. After manufacturing the specimens, the dimensional characteristics that will be determined by measurement were defined: L—length, WA—width A, HA—height A, WA’—width A’, and HA’—height A’. Dimensional accuracy was assessed through 900 measurements using a DeMeet 400 coordinate measuring machine and analyzing the arithmetic means, dispersions, and mean square deviations. The results of the study confirm the superior dimensional stability of virgin materials (18.77–20.04%) compared to recycled materials. The analysis demonstrates that by optimizing the process parameters, filaments from recycled materials (rPETG and rASA) can achieve acceptable precision, with average deviations of 0.25–0.78% from the nominal dimensions. The present study validates the use of rPETG and rASA as a viable alternative for applications that do not require critical tolerances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition)

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16 pages, 4603 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Evaluation of Customizable Immobilization Masks for Precision Radiotherapy

by Diana Adlienė, Antonio Jreije, Paulius Griškevičius, Neringa Keršienė and Rūta Nedzinskienė

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020287 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1162

Abstract

Accurate immobilization is critical in head and neck (H&N) radiotherapy to ensure precise dose delivery while minimizing irradiation of surrounding healthy tissues. However, conventional thermoplastic masks cannot secure 100% replicas of the patient’s surface and are often limited by mechanical weakness, patient discomfort, and workflow inefficiencies. Recently, the best replicas of the patient’s face have been obtained by exploring personal CT or MRI scans of patients that are used for manufacturing of immobilization masks. This study aimed to design and evaluate customizable immobilization masks using acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)-based composites reinforced with bismuth oxide (Bi₂O₃) and to compare their mechanical performance against commercial thermoplastic masks. ABS and ABS/Bi₂O₃ composite filaments (5, 10, and 20 wt%) were fabricated and characterized by tensile testing. A patient-specific virtual mask was modeled and subjected to finite element analysis (FEA) under clinically relevant loading scenarios, including neck flexion and lateral bending. Results were benchmarked against two commercial thermoplastic masks. ABS and ABS-based composites exhibited significantly higher stiffness (1.7–2.5 GPa) and yield strength (20–25 MPa) compared to commercial thermoplastics (0.25–0.3 GPa, ~7 MPa; p < 0.001). FEA simulations revealed markedly reduced displacement in ABS masks (1–5 mm at 2 mm thickness; <1 mm at 4 mm thickness) relative to commercial masks, which exceeded 20 mm under lateral load. Hybrid configurations with reinforced edges further optimized rigidity while limiting material usage. Customized ABS-based immobilization masks outperform conventional thermoplastics in mechanical stability and displacement control, with the potential to reduce planning margins and improve patient comfort. In addition, ABS-based masks can be recycled, and Bi₂O₃-filled composites can be reused for printing new immobilization masks, thus contributing to a reduced amount of plastic waste. These findings support their promise as next-generation immobilization devices for precision radiotherapy, warranting further clinical validation, workflow integration and sustainable implementation within a circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition)

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18 pages, 5508 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Concept of a 3D-Printed Microfluidic Device on Oxyfluorinated PDMS Substrates

by Fedor Doronin, Georgy Rytikov, Andrey Evdokimov, Mikhail Savel’ev, Anna Rudakova, Yuriy Rudyak and Victor Nazarov

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3044; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223044 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1186

Abstract

We present the concept of a microfluidic device manufactured using 3D printing and oxyfluorination techniques. During prototype testing, it was found that a larger number of cells adhered to the oxyfluorinated surface compared to the original one. It has also been shown that longer gas-phase treatments correspond to a higher level of cell growth. These items can be used in experiments with reagents and/or microorganisms that cause glass surface corrosion. This increases the number of production techniques for microfluidics devices, expands the possibilities for their use in biotechnology, and solves the main problem of low interlayer adhesion between components of polymer-made microfluidic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition)

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20 pages, 7131 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Functional Fluorine-Containing Coatings for 3D-Printed Items

by Fedor Doronin, Georgy Rytikov, Andrey Evdokimov, Mikhail Savel’ev, Yuriy Rudyak and Victor Nazarov

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2824; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212824 - 23 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 983

Abstract

In this study, a surface texture design technique for 3D-extruded prototype products was developed. The study determines some target functional properties of polymer-made items. Four series of experimental samples (acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS), thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), polylactide (PLA), and polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG)) were 3D-printed using the fused filament fabrication (FFF) approach. The morphology and hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance of the surfaces of the experimental samples were regulated directly by the 3D design and by gas-phase fluorination techniques. The observed distilled water and ethylene glycol edge wetting angles of the surfaces of the experimental samples were determined by a 3D filament stroke arrangement. It was shown that varying the 3D design promoted hydrophobization and provided anisotropic wetting (the distilled water edge angle of the same sample varies from 76 to 116 degrees). The textured surfaces simultaneously demonstrated hydrophilicity in one direction and hydrophobicity in the other. The changing of the fluorine-containing gas mixture surface treatment duration allowed us to alter the hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance of 3D-extruded prototypes. The fluorination kinetics of the experimental samples were studied empirically. The combination of macroscopic surface design (through FFF 3D printing) and microscopic surface modification (through gas-phase fluorination) permitted a significant reduction in the straining friction coefficient and increased the wettability of the complex-shaped 3D-printed products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition)

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18 pages, 1858 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Cross-Sectional Design and Orientation in Governing Energy Absorption of Additively Manufactured Polyamide 12 (PA12) Octet Lattices

by Muhammet Muaz Yalçın, Sedat İriç, Derya İriç and Mostafa S. A. Elsayed

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2817; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212817 - 22 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1087

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of strut cross-sectional geometry and orientation on the crashworthiness of octet truss lattice structures produced via Multi Jet Fusion (MJF) using Polyamide 12 (PA12) material. All lattice configurations were designed and printed at a constant relative density of approximately 30%, ensuring equal mass and material usage across geometries. Quasi-static compression tests were conducted on lattices featuring circular, elliptical, rectangular, and square struts, with the latter two also evaluated at 0° and 90° orientations relative to the loading direction. Energy absorption (EA), specific energy absorption (SEA), crush force efficiency (CFE), and mean plateau stress metrics were employed to evaluate the structural energy absorption efficiency. The results highlight that strut geometry and orientation significantly alter mechanical behavior due to differences in moments of inertia. The circular strut lattice, used as the reference configuration, achieved an SEA of 0.79 J/g. Among the tested designs, the elliptical lattice exhibited the most pronounced variation: the non-rotated version showed the lowest SEA (0.63 J/g, ~20% lower than the reference), whereas the 90° rotated version yielded the highest SEA (0.92 J/g, ~16% higher). Rectangular struts displayed a similar trend, with rotated specimens outperforming their non-rotated counterparts. Square struts, however, showed negligible differences between orientations, as their rotational inertia remained constant. Overall, the findings demonstrate that optimizing strut cross-sections can enhance crashworthiness by improving energy dissipation and stabilizing deformation mechanisms under compressive loading. The rotated elliptical cross-section emerged as the most efficient configuration, offering superior SEA and crush stress efficiency. The findings highlight that cross-sectional design and orientation provide an effective mechanism for tuning mechanical performance in lightweight lattice materials without altering overall density or topology. These insights emphasize the potential of geometric tailoring in lattice design to meet safety and lightweight requirements in transportation, defense and biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 3rd Edition)

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