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Polymers
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Technological Innovations for Polymer Circularity: Upcycling, Biodegradation, and Processing
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Technological Innovations for Polymer Circularity: Upcycling, Biodegradation, and Processing

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Circular and Green Sustainable Polymer Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2025 | Viewed by 4640

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Francesca Lionetto

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
Interests: material characterization; ultrasonic wave propagation; polymer rheology; curing kinetics of thermosetting matrices; polymer matrix composites; polymer composite processing and joining; heat transfer modelling; polymer based nanocomposites; hybrid welding of dissimilar materials; micro and nanoplastics; sustainability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Carlos Espinoza-González

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Advanced Materials, Research Center for Applied Chemistry (CIQA), Saltillo 25294, Mexico
Interests: microparticles; spray drying; encapsulating; biodegradable polymers; natural products
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue would focus on a holistic approach to polymer circularity, combining the concepts of upcycling, biodegradation, and sustainable processing into a unified research agenda. The goal is to explore how these strategies can be synergistically applied to create fully circular polymer systems. Topics include but are not limited to the following:

  • Upcycling for Circular Systems: Techniques for transforming polymer or polymer composite waste into high-value materials designed for easy biodegradation, further recycling, or studies on the impact of polymers on the environment.
  • Advanced Biodegradation within Circular Systems: Strategies for designing polymers or polymer composite that not only biodegrade efficiently but also integrate seamlessly with upcycling processes, thus closing the loop on material lifecycles.
  • Sustainable Processing Innovations: Development of low-energy, low-waste processing techniques that support both upcycling and biodegradation, reducing the environmental footprint of polymer production and disposal. These techniques include solvent-free polymerization, ultrasound, microwaves, energy-efficient processing methods, and other innovative approaches to minimize material loss.
  • Advanced characterization methods: Use of advanced characterization methods for understanding polymer properties and behavior during polymer or polymer composite manufacturing. They include, for example, rheology, thermal analysis techniques, dynamic mechanical analysis, spectroscopic and morphological techniques, and analysis and development of new characterization methods that promote sustainable and intelligent manufacturing.
  • Integrated Circularity Models: Case studies and modeling approaches that demonstrate the integration of upcycling, biodegradation, and sustainable processing in real-world applications, with a focus on scalability and economic viability.
  • Intelligent processing innovations: Integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to enhance the efficiency of sustainable processing and to enable the real-time monitoring of polymer or polymer composite behavior during manufacturing or lifecycle. This includes utilizing simulation and computational modeling to predict polymer or polymer composite behavior during processing, optimize process parameters, and develop new materials and processes.

Dr. Francesca Lionetto
Dr. Carlos Espinoza-González
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • upcycling
  • circular systems
  • biodegradation
  • sustainable processing innovations
  • advanced characterization methods
  • integrated circularity models
  • intelligent processing innovations

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

25 pages, 5168 KiB  
Article
Pyrolyzed Biomass Filler for PLA-Based Food Packaging
by Andreea-Cătălina Joe, Maria Tănase, Catalina Călin, Elena-Emilia Sîrbu, Ionuț Banu, Dorin Bomboș and Stanca Cuc
Polymers 2025, 17(10), 1327; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101327 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 224
Abstract
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer used in various applications, including food packaging, 3D printing, textiles, and biomedical devices. Nevertheless, it presents several limitations, such as high hydrophobicity, low gas barrier properties, UV sensitivity, and brittleness. To overcome this issue, in [...] Read more.
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer used in various applications, including food packaging, 3D printing, textiles, and biomedical devices. Nevertheless, it presents several limitations, such as high hydrophobicity, low gas barrier properties, UV sensitivity, and brittleness. To overcome this issue, in this study, biochar (BC) produced through pyrolysis of bio-mass waste was incorporated (1 wt.%, 2wt.%, and 3 wt.%—PLA 1, PLA 2, and PLA 3) to enhance thermal and mechanical properties of PLA composites. The impact of pyrolysis temperature on the kinetic parameters, physicochemical characteristics, and structural properties of banana and orange peels for use as biochar added to PLA was investigated. The biomass waste such as banana and orange peels were characterized by proximal analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA); meanwhile, the PLA composites were characterized by tensile straight, TGA, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The results indicated that the presence of biochar improved hygroscopic characteristics and Tg temperature from 62.98 °C for 1 wt.% to 80.29 °C for 3 wt.%. Additionally, it was found that the tensile strength of the composites increased by almost 30% for PLA 3 compared with PLA 1. The Young’s modulus also increased from 194.334 MPa for PLA1 to 388.314 MPa for PLA3. However, the elongation decreased from 14.179 (PLA 1) to 7.240 mm (PLA3), and the maximum thermal degradation temperature shifted to lower temperatures ranging from 366 °C for PLA-1 to 345 °C for PLA-3 samples, respectively. From surface analysis, it was observed that the surface of these samples was relatively smooth, but small microcluster BC aggregates were visible, especially for the PLA 3 composite. In conclusion, the incorporation of biochar into PLA is a promising method for enhancing material performance while maintaining environmental sustainability by recycling biomass waste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technological Innovations for Polymer Circularity: Upcycling, Biodegradation, and Processing)
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14 pages, 4791 KiB  
Article
Effect of PET Micro/Nanoplastics on Model Freshwater Zooplankton
by Natan Rajtar, Małgorzata Starek, Lorenzo Vincenti, Monika Dąbrowska, Marek Romek, Rosaria Rinaldi, Francesca Lionetto and Mariusz Kepczynski
Polymers 2025, 17(9), 1256; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17091256 - 5 May 2025
Viewed by 213
Abstract
Micro- and nanoplastic pollutants are among the major environmental challenges, and are exacerbated by the continuous degradation of growing amounts of plastic debris in the aquatic environment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the morphology of micro/nanoplastics (M/NPs) formed from polyethylene [...] Read more.
Micro- and nanoplastic pollutants are among the major environmental challenges, and are exacerbated by the continuous degradation of growing amounts of plastic debris in the aquatic environment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the morphology of micro/nanoplastics (M/NPs) formed from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) by mechanical degradation in an aquatic environment, which mimics the processes in the natural environment well, and to determine the impact of these particles on model aquatic organisms. To this end, M/NPs were obtained by ball milling in an aqueous medium and the effect of milling length on particle size and shape was investigated. The particles obtained in an environment simulating natural conditions were irregularly shaped, and those of nanometric size tended to form aggregates of various shapes. The ingestion and toxicity of PET M/NPs to freshwater zooplankton were then assessed. Daphnia magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus were used in a series of acute ecotoxicity tests, by exposure to M/NP dispersions at environmentally realistic concentrations (0.01–1.0 mg/L), as well as at very high concentrations (100–1000 mg/L). A significant uptake of PET particles by both types of invertebrates was observed, and the M/NPs were mainly concentrated in the digestive tracts of the crustaceans. However, they did not cause acute toxicity to the tested organisms or a reduction in their swimming activity, even at concentrations as high as 1000 mg/L. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technological Innovations for Polymer Circularity: Upcycling, Biodegradation, and Processing)
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19 pages, 5673 KiB  
Article
Efficient Bioprocess for Mixed PET Waste Depolymerization Using Crude Cutinase
by Virender Kumar, Reinhard Wimmer and Cristiano Varrone
Polymers 2025, 17(6), 763; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17060763 - 14 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1541
Abstract
In recent years, several plastic-degrading enzymes with efficient depolymerization abilities for PET have been reported. Here, we report a bioprocess for mixed PET waste depolymerization using crude extracellularly expressed enzymes in E. coli. The enzymes, namely FastPETase, LCC, and LCCICCG, [...] Read more.
In recent years, several plastic-degrading enzymes with efficient depolymerization abilities for PET have been reported. Here, we report a bioprocess for mixed PET waste depolymerization using crude extracellularly expressed enzymes in E. coli. The enzymes, namely FastPETase, LCC, and LCCICCG, were screened to depolymerize amorphous PET powder and films of different sizes and crystallinity. FastPETase, LCC, and LCCICCG achieved approximately 25, 34, and 70% depolymerization, respectively, when applied to 13 g L−1 of PET film, powder, or mixed waste in optimized enzyme conditions without any pH control. The yield of terephthalic acid in the hydrolytic process was maximum for LCCICCG followed by LCC and FastPETase. Finally, extracellular LCCICCG-producing E. coli cells were cultivated using minimal media supplemented with 0.1% ammonium chloride and 1% glycerol as nitrogen and carbon sources in a bioreactor with a final protein content and specific activity of 119 ± 5 mg L−1 and 1232 ± 18 U mg−1, respectively. Nearly complete depolymerization of 13 g L−1 PET and 23.8 g L−1 post-consumer PET was achieved in 50 h using crude LCCICCG supernatant, without enzyme purification, at 62 °C. A bioprocess was thus developed to depolymerize 100 g L−1 mixed PET trays and bottle waste (MW1 and MW2), reaching 78% and 50% yield at 62 °C with a crude enzyme loading of 2.32 mg g−1 PET in 60 h. The results demonstrate an easy PET depolymerization strategy that could be exploited in large-scale facilities for efficient plastic waste treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technological Innovations for Polymer Circularity: Upcycling, Biodegradation, and Processing)
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10 pages, 2590 KiB  
Article
High-Strength and Rapidly Degradable Nanocomposite Yarns from Recycled Waste Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA)
by Ben Liu, Shixiao Wang, Hanling Guo, Huibo Yin, Yuqiu Song, Min Gong, Liang Zhang, Xiang Lin and Dongrui Wang
Polymers 2025, 17(1), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010100 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 837
Abstract
Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) is a rapidly degradable polymer mainly used in medical applications, attributed to its relatively high cost. Reducing its price will boost its utilization in a wider range of application fields, such as gas barriers and shale gas extraction. This article [...] Read more.
Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) is a rapidly degradable polymer mainly used in medical applications, attributed to its relatively high cost. Reducing its price will boost its utilization in a wider range of application fields, such as gas barriers and shale gas extraction. This article presents a strategy that utilizes recycled PGA as a raw material alongside typical carbon nanomaterials, such as graphene oxide nanosheets (GO) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), to produce low-cost, fully degradable yarns via electrospinning and twisting techniques. The results demonstrate that the tensile strength of the PGA/GO composite yarn increased to 21.36 MPa, and the elastic modulus attained a value of 259.51 MPa with a 3 wt% of GO loading. The addition of an appropriate amount of GO enhances the tensile resistance of the composite yarns to a certain extent. However, excessive application of GO and CNTs can lead to surface defects in the nanofibers, reducing their mechanical properties. Moreover, the integration of both materials could inhibit the degradation process of PGA to some extent, thereby partially addressing the issue of excessive degradation rates associated with the relatively low molecular weight of recycled PGA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technological Innovations for Polymer Circularity: Upcycling, Biodegradation, and Processing)
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16 pages, 2172 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Impact of the Post-Consumer Film Waste Scenario and the Source of Electricity on the Harmfulness of the Mass Packaging Process
by Patrycja Walichnowska, Weronika Kruszelnicka, Izabela Piasecka, Józef Flizikowski, Andrzej Tomporowski, Adam Mazurkiewicz, José Miguel Martínez Valle, Marek Opielak and Oleh Polishchuk
Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3467; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243467 - 12 Dec 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1226
Abstract
Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a popular tool for determining the environmental impacts of a product in use. The aim of this study is to carry out a life cycle analysis, gate-to-gate, of a mass packaging process using a polyethylene shrinking film with [...] Read more.
Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a popular tool for determining the environmental impacts of a product in use. The aim of this study is to carry out a life cycle analysis, gate-to-gate, of a mass packaging process using a polyethylene shrinking film with a focus on energy consumption, raw material use and associated emissions, and film post-consumer disposal scenarios. Two different scenarios for the disposal of the shrinking film used in the packaging process were analyzed, namely recycling and landfills. The analysis showed that choosing recycling as the post-consumer management of film waste within the studied system boundaries reduces the negative environmental impact by approximately 17%. The study showed significantly higher environmental benefits in terms of harmfulness to human health for recycling than for landfills. A study of the environmental impact of the mass packaging process depending on the energy source showed that using a renewable source minimizes environmental damage. Three sources of energy options were analyzed, including the country’s energy mix, wind, and solar. The research shows that changing sources to wind power reduces potential damage to human health by 91%, to ecosystems by 89%, and to resources by 92% compared to the country’s energy mix power option. When comparing the results for the renewable energy options, the variant with energy from wind presents lower harm in all three damage categories compared to the solar option. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technological Innovations for Polymer Circularity: Upcycling, Biodegradation, and Processing)
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