Pollutants

The metalloid arsenic (As) and the metals lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg), which together we call the “Toxic Triad”, are among the pollutants of greatest global concern, harming the health of millions of people and contributing to biodiversity loss. The widespread distribution of As, Pb and Hg facilitates the exposure of humans and other species to these elements simultaneously, potentially amplifying their individual toxic effects. While As, Pb and Hg are well established as toxic elements, the mechanisms by which they interact with genetic material and impact the health of various species remain incompletely understood. This is particularly true regarding the combined effects of these three elements. In this context, the objective of this work was to perform a toxicogenomic analysis of As, Pb and Hg to highlight multiple aspects of element-gene interactions, in addition to revisiting information on the genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of the Toxic Triad. By using The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database, it was possible to identify that As interacts with 7666 genes across various species, while Pb influences 3525 genes, and Hg affects 692 genes. Removing duplicate gene names, the three elements interact with 9763 genes across multiple species. Considering the top-20 As/Pb/Hg-interacting genes, catalase (CAT), NFE2 like bZIP transcription factor 2 (NFE2L2), caspase 3 (CASP3), heme oxygenase (HMOX1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) and interleukin 6 (IL6) were the most frequently observed. In total, 172 genes have the potential to interact with the three elements. Gene ontology analysis based on those genes evidenced that the Toxic Triad affects several cellular compartments and molecular functions, highlighting its effect on stimulation of toxic stress mechanisms. These 172 genes are also associated with various diseases, especially those of the urogenital tract, as well as being related to biological pathways involved in infectious diseases caused by viruses, bacteria and parasites. Arsenic was the element with the best-substantiated genotoxic and carcinogenic activity. This article details, through a toxicogenomic approach, the genetic bases that underlie the toxic effects of As, Pb and Hg. Full article

Air quality management concerns the assessment, analysis and mitigation strategies associated with ensuring that air is breathable and non-toxic. Successful management is a cognitively intensive task, knowledge-focused and converges multiple sources of information to develop a shared understanding of a problem. To operate effectively in this space, managers and operational teams share common points of reference in discussing problems and solutions, strategies, tactical briefings, etc., and communication and technical language use are key to the discipline. However, few studies have homed in on the language communities of air quality management discourse, and fewer still have exploited this to gain insight into the cognitive processes underpinning salient operational knowledge production. This paper draws upon a discussion from a multi-stakeholder workshop on bioaerosols and the built environment and draws upon Cognitive Linguistics to systematically examine the cognitive structuring of those different stakeholder representations. This approach is then explored as a contribution to good practice in air quality knowledge management and communication that is consistent with studies on cognitive and learning science and has potential for policy formulation. Full article

In this paper, we analyse the effectiveness of microbubble technology in inactivating/reducing gram-negative, gram-positive, and radiation-resistant bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Deinococcus radiodurans, respectively, in model water. Key water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, and total dissolved solids are recorded and presented to demonstrate their range in the current investigation. The study results indicate a reduction of 95% in E. coli, 100% in D. radiodurans, and 45% in B. subtilis following microbubble treatment. These findings suggest that ambient air microbubbles, generated using a low-cost, reagent-free, and eco-friendly venturi-type microbubble generator, represent a promising technique for reducing bacterial loads in water. Full article

Active and abandoned mining sites are significant sources of heavy metals and metalloid pollution, leading to serious environmental issues. This study assessed the environmental risks posed by potentially toxic elements (PTEs), specifically arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb), in the Technosols (mining residues) of the former Pejão coal mine complex in Northern Portugal, a site impacted by forest wildfires in October 2017 that triggered underground combustion within the waste heaps. Our methodology involved determining the “pseudo-total” concentrations of As and Sb in the collected heap samples using microwave digestion with aqua regia (ISO 12914), followed by analysis using hydride generation-atomic absorption spectroscopy (HG-AAS). The concentrations of As an Sb ranging from 31.0 to 68.6 mg kg⁻¹ and 4.8 to 8.3 mg kg⁻¹, respectively, were found to be above the European background values reported in project FOREGS (11.6 mg kg⁻¹ for As and 1.04 mg kg⁻¹ for Sb) and Portuguese Environment Agency (APA) reference values for agricultural soils (11 mg kg⁻¹ for As and 7.5 mg kg⁻¹ for Sb), indicating significant enrichment of these PTEs. Based on average I_geo values, As contamination overall was classified as “unpolluted to moderately polluted” while Sb contamination was classified as “moderately polluted” in the waste pile samples and “unpolluted to moderately polluted” in the downhill soil samples. However, total PTE content alone is insufficient for a comprehensive environmental risk assessment. Therefore, further studies on As and Sb fractionation and speciation were conducted using the Shiowatana sequential extraction procedure (SEP). The results showed that As and Sb levels in the more mobile fractions were not significant. This suggests that the enrichment in the burned (BCW) and unburned (UCW) coal waste areas of the mine is likely due to the stockpiling of lithic fragments, primarily coals hosting arsenian pyrites and stibnite which largely traps these elements within its crystalline structure. The observed enrichment in downhill soils (DS) is attributed to mechanical weathering, rock fragment erosion, and transport processes. Given the strong association of these elements with solid phases, the risk of leaching into surface waters and aquifers is considered low. This work underscores the importance of a holistic approach to environmental risk assessment at former mining sites, contributing to the development of sustainable remediation strategies for long-term environmental protection. Full article

The threats posed by Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) impact food safety and, by implication, food security in the polar regions. POPs tend to persist in the environment and the fatty tissues of animals, thereby constituting long-term contamination. Due to the cold climate and geography of these polar regions, they create a sink for these pollutants, which travel from their source of production and accumulate in food chains, resulting in health risks to the ecosystem, animals, and humans of the Arctic and Antarctica. In this paper, we draw attention to the threats posed by POPs and how they can lead to food insecurity, negatively affecting health due to unsafe traditional foods. A narrative synthesis methodology was employed, systematically analyzing historical data, activities, and research trends on POP contamination in polar ecosystems. We also highlight resilience promoted by Arctic governance, with a focus on how the issues of POPs became an international matter from the 1970s, with three United Nations (UN) conventions: the UN-Environment Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, the UN Minamata Convention on mercury, and the UN-ECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. These conventions led to the start of several monitoring activities in the polar regions, transforming the POPs into a global topic. We also consider the intertwined effect of climate change on POPs. Additionally, the human rights paradigm in relation to food security and sovereignty for polar communities is explored. Strengthening the resilience of communities in the polar regions requires recognition of these nutritious traditional foods as an aspect of cultural identity that must be safe and easily accessible. We focus on developments, improvements, the role of international cooperation, and frameworks to assist in research and regulations. Furthermore, establishing systems that engage local communities to consistently monitor POPs regularly will lead to a better understanding of these threats. Ultimately, this narrative provides a look into the past and current research of POPs and their monitoring in the polar regions. Full article

The use of ultraviolet (UV) for water disinfection is known for its chemical-free process and with no harmful disinfection by-products. Yet, the disinfection process remains time-consuming, and many studies are limited to disinfection of one or two microbial species. Direct photolytic and glass-embedded TiO₂ photocatalytic disinfection of four different bacterial species (Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella senftenberg, Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli) were assessed using UV-LED radiation with wavelengths of 365 nm. The optimization of the UV disinfection under different masses of the TiO₂ photocatalyst was evaluated. Additionally, the order of disinfection of the different bacteria species was assessed. The disinfection effects were measured based on the potential to reduce the number of bacteria species, calculated in colony-forming units/mL and log reduction units. The disinfection of Staphylococcus aureus was enhanced from 1.46 log reduction units in the UV-alone treatment to a high of 5.65 log reduction units in the UV + 0.08 g TiO₂ treatment. Regarding Salmonella senftenberg, disinfection was enhanced from 1.26 log reduction units to 3.85 log reduction units in UV-alone experimental treatments and UV + 0.04 g TiO₂, respectively. Similarly, an increase in Bacillus subtilis reduction was achieved from a low of 0.69 log reduction units to a high of 2.98 log reduction units in UV-alone treatments and UV + 0.08 g TiO₂, respectively. The disinfection of Escherichia coli was enhanced from 2.49 log reduction units (UV-alone treatment) to a high of 6.35 log reduction units (UV + 0.02 g TiO₂). The findings provide key implications and new insights into the studied bacteria species and the future application of porous glass-embedded TiO₂ photocatalysts to enhance bacteria disinfection using UV light for improved water. Full article

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a noteworthy global health issue affecting 10% of the world’s populace. It is increasingly linked to environmental exposures; however, the interplay of toxic metals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and essential elements has not been fully elucidated. This cross-sectional study analyzed 5800 out of the 9245 participants from the 2017–2018 NHANES dataset to evaluate the combined effect of PFAS, essential elements, and toxic metals on CKD using logistic regression and advanced environmental mixture models, namely, Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR), quantile g-computation (qgcomp), and Weighted Quantile Sum (WQS) regression. Our results showed cadmium (Cd) emerging as a significant contributor to CKD (OR = 2.16, p = 0.023) from the logistic regression analysis. Mercury (Hg) demonstrated the highest contribution in mixtures (posterior inclusion probability = 0.908) from our BKMR analysis, with a non-linear U-shaped dose–response relationship. Essential elements like selenium (Se) and manganese (Mn) exhibited protective correlations but complex non-linear interactions, moderating toxic metal effects from our qgcomp and WQS regression. Notably, antagonistic interactions between essential elements and some pollutants reduced the overall mixture impact on CKD, showing an overall decreasing joint effect of the combined PFAS, toxic metals, and essential elements on CKD, from the 25th to the 75th quantile. This study highlights the role of environmental co-exposures in CKD risk and highlights the need for advanced statistical and machine learning approaches in studying complex environmental mixture interactions on human health. Full article

To investigate the place-based association between BCM and air pollution in middle-aged (45–64) and older-aged women (65+) in California at the zip code level, secondary data were collected from the California Department of Public Health (CDPH) Data and Vital Statistics, CalEnviroScreen 4.0, and the American Community Survey (ACS) from the Census. Multiple linear regression was used to test the significance between air pollution and age-standardized BCM rates. The results indicate a significant association between PM_2.5 and age-standardized BCM rates for both the middle-aged and older-aged groups (β = 3.73, 95% CI [2.89, 4.58]; β = 5.33, 95% CI [2.75, 8.32], respectively). Furthermore, we found evidence of effect modification by the concentration of Hispanic women (β = −6.73, 95% CI [−9.37, −4.08]. This study provides evidence of a significant spatial association between PM_2.5 and BCM rates, which has policy implications for stricter air quality regulations and urban planning policies. Further research is needed to establish causality and the mechanism of action at the population level. Full article

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), also known as “forever chemicals”, are a class of highly stable chemical compounds that slowly contaminate waterbodies and soil. The widespread presence of PFAS is associated with adverse human health effects and is a major environmental concern. The conventional, highly sensitive methods used for PFAS detection are LC-MS/MS and solid phase extraction, but they are very complex and expensive. Therefore, there is an urgent need for sensitive, low-cost, and fast methods for the detection and removal of PFAS compounds from water and soil resources. The advancement of nanotechnology has significantly impacted advanced disease diagnosis and treatment in the last few decades. Currently, these engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have been exploited for the development of advanced nano-enabled techniques for the detection and removal of environmental pollutants. Nano-enabled techniques also offer improved performance over conventional methods. In this review, the details of the detection and removal of PFAS, as well as their optimization and limitations, and future perspectives are discussed. We focused on the implementation of nanomaterials such as nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanorods, and nano*filtration membranes for efficient PFAS detection and removal. We also included the recent literature and global guidelines for PFAS use and the effect of PFAS exposure on human health. Full article

Exposure to contaminated soils can adversely affect health and the well-being of both humans and animals. Environmental stressors can influence the mobility and toxicity of contaminants, altering their potential impacts. This study aimed to assess the impact on the behavior of offspring from rats exposed during the gestation and lactation period to contaminated and acidified soils. Female Wistar rats were gavaged daily for 42 days with soil leachate from an industrial region known to be contaminated with metals and metalloids, using solvents with different pH values (6.0, 5.2, and 3.6). The offspring were evaluated in behavioral tests including Open Field, Elevated Plus Maze, and Inhibitory Avoidance. Our findings revealed significant statistical differences in all three tests conducted, indicating that the exposed groups exhibited lower exploratory behavior, higher anxiety behavior, and lower memory retention than the control groups. The difference was more pronounced in the soil leachate with acidified solvent, at both pH 5.2 and 3.6, suggesting that the combined effect of both stressors led to synergistic interactions, potentiating their impacts. Elemental analysis revealed elevated levels of neurotoxic metals, including Cr, Cu, and Ni, as well as the metalloid As, with acidification significantly enhancing their bioavailability. Moreover, our results demonstrate that acidification facilitated the mobilization of metals and the metalloid As, increasing their bioavailability and acting synergistically to exacerbate the behavioral impacts of contaminated soils. Special attention should be given to populations living in industrial areas that may be exposed to contaminated soils. Full article

The prevalence of hyperthyroidism in cats has been steadily increasing worldwide since the late 1970s. The main cause of feline hyperthyroidism remains unknown. The underlying cause was studied from the viewpoint of the “One Health” concept, which is an approach integrating environmental, animal and human health. Looking at the dietary difference between cats which are carnivores and dogs which appear to be omnivores like humans, there is a possibility that cats take in a comparatively greater amount of endocrine-disrupting chemicals such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) than dogs and humans via the fish-based food web. PBDEs have been used worldwide as flame retardants since the 1970s. It is considered that PBDEs mimic thyroid-stimulating hormones to cause a thyroid adenoma, which is often active and produces excessive thyroid hormones, resulting in symptomatic hyperthyroidism. The increasing prevalence of feline hyperthyroidism may be associated with Minamata disease that was caused by methyl-mercury contamination in the 1950s. This environmental contamination firstly wreaked havoc as neurological disorders in local cats, and this occurrence was a sign that severe neurological disorders would next develop in large numbers of local people. The prevalence of feline hyperthyroidism may be a sign of what will next emerge in human beings. Full article

This study evaluated heavy metal (HM) contamination in sediments from the Malbasag River in the Ormoc City port, Leyte, Philippines. A total of thirty sediment samples were collected randomly from ten locations along the river using an Ekman grab sampler. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry revealed HM concentrations in the order of Mn > Zn > Cu > Ni > Pb > Cd. All HMs exceeded their sediment quality guideline (SQG) thresholds except for Mn. Contamination was assessed using indices such as the contamination factor (CF), pollution load index (PLI), geo-accumulation index (I_geo), and enrichment factor (EF). The CF values indicated “moderate to considerable” contamination for Zn, Ni, and Cd, while Cu and Pb showed “very high” contamination levels. The PLI results indicated severe sediment degradation in 20% of samples. The I_geo analysis classified 60% of the samples as “heavily to extremely polluted” for Cd, Cu, and Pb. EF analysis suggested that anthropogenic sources contributed to elevated HM levels, including port activities and agricultural runoff. Ecological risk index (RI) analysis revealed moderate risk in 40% and considerable risk in 20% of sampling locations. Multivariate analyses suggested significant anthropogenic contributions to HM contamination, highlighting the need for further studies to assess the ecological impacts. Full article

The recent increase in industrial activities has raised concerns regarding environmental quality in urban areas in Malawi. In this study, the contents of heavy metals [copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd)] were analysed in 15 sites selected from Makata, Limbe, Maselema, Chirimba, and Maone industrial zones of Blantyre City in Malawi. Soil sampling was conducted during dry and rainy seasons, followed by laboratory analysis. The results revealed a few cases of elevated content of heavy metals exceeding permissible England and Canadian standards with higher content detected during the dry season than in the rainy season. Chirimba soil had the highest mean Zn content of 822 mg/kg in the rainy season and 579 mg/kg in the dry season. Maone soils had the highest Cd content, measuring 2.09 mg/kg in the rainy season and 3.06 mg/kg in the dry season. Chirimba soils also had the highest Cu content with levels of 105 mg/kg in the dry season and 79 mg/kg in the rainy season. The geo-accumulation index indicated that Zn posed the most severe pollution. The results of the Positive Matrix Factorisation model suggest that heavy metal pollution primarily originates from metal processing and manufacturing industries, followed by plastic manufacturing industries. This finding is supported by the nature of emissions from these sectors, where metal processing activities release heavy metals through particulates and waste to the environment, suggesting collective actions to prevent soil contamination. Full article

This paper focuses on the environmental impact of urban surface transportation and the influence that driving mode and drivers’ attitudes have on it. This article emphasizes the importance of a respectful attitude toward the environment and adopting moderate or conservative driving modes. This study covers driving GHG emissions in urban and peripheral areas for variable driving conditions, evaluating reductions or increases in CO₂ emissions depending on the way of driving. The analysis of the different cases shows that pollutant emissions are significantly lower if a car driver reduces the acceleration rate and slows down by 10 to 20 km/h, or 6 to 12 mph, depending on the urban zone, downtown or peripheral, and traffic conditions. The reduction in GHG emissions can be as high as 0.083 kg of CO₂ per day, on average, representing a global yearly reduction of 30 kg of GHG emissions per vehicle. This paper analyzes how inadequate driving speed and the above traffic regulation limits have caused a surplus in GHG emissions and a severe impact on urban areas, which are sensitive to pollution, increasing the GHG emission rate by between 28% and 40% depending on driving mode and driver attitude. This study shows that vehicle speed reduction did not significantly increase traveling time, with an average time extension of 0.2 min per km, representing a global extended daily traveled time of 6.4 min for the average daily journey distance in many countries. GHG increases due to inadequate driving increase the early human mortality rate by 0.4%, representing nearly 35 million early deaths per year. Full article

Two sets of sediment samples were collected from the Sarigiol basin, Greece, aiming to evaluate the environmental consequences of the industrial activity in the area by assessing their magnetic properties with the magnetic susceptibility method. Chemical composition and morphological characteristics of magnetic particles were defined by EDX analysis and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. Based on the results, most of the study area shows positive values of the difference between X_LF values of the samples, indicating the influence of fly ash dispersion from Agios Dimitrios and Kardia power plants and the conveyor belt, down to a depth of 50 cm. Negative values in the NE, W and S parts of the study area are attributed to ophiolite complexes. Anthropogenic and lithogenic magnetic particles were identified at a 50 cm depth, in the form of spheres and octahedrons, respectively. Fe is the dominant element while Al, Si, Mg and Ca were found in minor amounts. Cr increases with depth, pointing mainly to a lithogenic source, while Ti decreases, suggesting a relationship with the dispersed fly ash particles. Mn and Zn were found in limited magnetic spheres. These findings highlight the need for effective environmental management strategies and are valuable keys for soil pollution control. Full article

Air pollution in urban centers comes from anthropogenic activities. Tropospheric ozone (O₃) depends on chemical precursors that promote an increase in its production, mainly in wind-dominated and large green areas. It is a gas produced by a series of complex chemical reactions catalyzed by sunlight in the atmosphere. It can be concentrated to a greater or lesser extent depending on factors such as the amount of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the amount of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), the intensity of solar radiation, or by climatic conditions such as temperature and other factors. The objective of this study was to predict tropospheric ozone levels from Land Surface Temperature (LST) data of Landsat 8 in the city of Durango, Dgo. Tropospheric O₃ and LST values were obtained from 14 sampling points in the urban area of the city of Durango, of which 11 were obtained by collecting from temperature-monitoring station data and the rest from three fixed monitoring stations established in the city, specifically located in Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (SRNyMA), Durango Institute of Technology (ITD) and Interdisciplinary Research Center for Regional Integral Development Durango Unit (CIIDIR). A correlation analysis was performed for the 12 months of the year 2023. Subsequently, a linear regression analysis was executed for each month. The results showed a greater positive correlation between O₃ concentration and temperature for January (r = 0.91); additionally, this period showed a greater goodness of fit in the prediction of O₃ (R² = 0.91; RMSE = 0.65 ppm). The LST allows for the spatial prediction of ozone concentrations in terms of covering complete urban areas without measuring air stations. Full article

Differences in exposures and resources to manage personal health contribute to persistent inequities in air pollution burden despite vast air quality improvements over the past 2–3 decades in the United States. These factors are, partly, linked to historic racist practices, such as redlining, a discriminatory housing policy that was practiced legally between 1935 and 1968. Using 100 m × 100 m resolution land-use regression predicted surfaces of PM_2.5 constituents (black carbon, nickel, vanadium, and copper) as pollution source indicators, we fit Bayesian generalized linear mixed-effects models to examine differences in source exposures over two study periods, 2008–2015 and 2016–2019, comparing (1) redlined to not redlined and (2) high-asthma to low-asthma neighborhoods. We examine redlining as an indicator of historical, and structural racism and asthma rates as an indicator of present-day community burden. Redlined areas saw near elimination of disparities in exposure to residual oil boilers and marine residual oil but persistent disparities in traffic. High-asthma neighborhoods continue to have disproportionately high exposures to both residual oil boilers and traffic, with no discernable disparities related to marine residual oil emissions. Overall exposure disparities are small, with PM_2.5 disparities by both asthma morbidity and redlining amounting to less than 1 µg/m³ and NO₂ disparities by asthma and redlining amounting to less than 2 ppb in the post-2016 period. For context, 2019 NYC average PM_2.5 and NO₂ were 8.5 µg/m³ and 20 ppb, respectively. Our findings suggest that local pollution policy should focus on reducing traffic and building boiler emissions in high-asthma neighborhoods to reduce exacerbations. Full article

Acid mine drainage (AMD), which is primarily caused by the exposure of sulfidic minerals to oxygen and water during mining operations, remains a significant contributor to environmental pollution. Numerous technologies have been developed to prevent/control and treat AMD, including the isolation of waste from the atmosphere and treatment systems for AMD-impacted water. Many field studies on mine site reclamation have involved an individual AMD source and/or technology, with a limited number of studies looking at reclamation programs integrating multiple approaches to manage AMD stemming from both surface and underground sources. The former Franklin mine site in Nova Scotia, Canada, was impacted by the deposition of waste rock across the site and the discharge of mine water from underground workings, with the adjacent Sullivan’s Pond serving as the main environmental receptor. Site reclamation was completed in 2010 and involved the following: (1) excavation of the dispersed waste rock (117,000 m²) and backfilling with clean soil; (2) consolidation of the excavated waste rock into a covered, compact waste rock pile (WRP) (25,000 m²); and (3) construction of a passive treatment system for the discharging underground mine water. An extensive field sampling program was conducted between 2011 and 2018 to monitor a range of meteorological, cover material, waste rock, groundwater, and surface water quality parameters. The results confirm that the multi-layer, geomembrane-lined WRP cover system is an extremely effective barrier to air and water influx, thereby minimizing the rate of AMD generation and seepage into groundwater and eliminating all contaminated surface water runoff. A small AMD groundwater plume emanates from the base of the WRP, with 50% captured by the underground mine workings over the long term and 50% slowly migrating towards Sullivan’s Pond. Excavation of the former waste disposal area eliminated the AMD source from the previously dispersed waste, with only clean surface water runoff and a diminishing legacy groundwater plume remaining. Finally, the passive treatment system, which contains a series of treatment technologies such as a limestone leach bed and settling pond, successfully treats all mine water loading (~50 kg/day) discharging from the underground workings and surface runoff. Its additional treatment capacity (up to ~150 kg/day) ensures it will be able to manage any potential drop in treatment efficiency and/or increased AMD loading from long-term WRP seepage. This comprehensive study of mine site reclamation and AMD management at an abandoned mining site can be of great reference value for environmental management and policymakers in the mining sector. Full article

Cigarette butts (CBs) are emerging soil contaminants, releasing chemicals upon contact with moisture. This study examined heavy metal concentrations leached from smoked and unsmoked CBs (Pall Mall, Philip Morris, and Marlboro) into OECD artificial soil and Vertisol soil and their accumulation in white mustard (Sinapis alba L.). Key physiological parameters, including germination rate, plant height, fresh weight, and dry weight, were analyzed, along with the uptake of heavy metals (Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ba, Ti, and Cu) and essential elements (Ca, Mg, Na, and K). Results showed that Mn had the highest bioaccumulation index (BAI = 1.10) in OECD soil, while Zn uptake was consistently high across soil types. Soil type significantly influenced plant height (χ² = 41.269, p < 0.01) and elemental composition, with Vertisol soil facilitating greater overall growth and heavy metal uptake than OECD soil. MANOVA revealed no three-way interaction among soil type, CB use, and CB brand on elemental uptake. However, two-way interactions, particularly between soil type and CB use (F (4, 39) = 40.233, p < 0.001, Wilk’Λ = 0.195), showed significant effects on heavy metal uptake. These findings highlight the complex interactions influencing plant contamination, underlining the ecological risks of CB pollution in soils. Full article