Assessing Dietary Exposure to Pesticides: Insights from Greek Potato Consumers

Abstract

The study investigates Greek consumers’ beliefs and their assessment of the risks associated with consuming potatoes they perceive as contaminated with pesticide residues, aiming to understand the relationship between perceived risk and actual dietary exposure. A survey of 1318 participants was conducted, employing latent profile analysis to identify two distinct consumer profiles: Concerned Consumers, who prioritize certified products and exhibit lower potato consumption, and Confident Consumers, who demonstrate higher consumption levels and lower risk perception. Data from the consumer survey and the two-category grouping were benchmarked against data from the Greek report on pesticide residue monitoring in food to estimate exposure against established toxicological reference values. The results indicate that pesticide residues on potatoes in Greece remain significantly below established toxicological reference values, with mean exposures well within safety limits for both consumer groups. Despite the higher consumption among Confident Consumers, their exposure levels are still negligible. The findings highlight a disconnect between consumer perceptions of pesticide risk and actual exposure, suggesting that current agricultural practices are effective in safeguarding public health. This study underscores the importance of evidence-based risk communication to bridge the gap between consumer concerns and scientific reality, reinforcing the role of potatoes as a safe and essential food source.

1. Introduction

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) has played a crucial role in the human diet, originating in South America and spreading across the globe. As the third most significant food crop worldwide, after rice and wheat, the potato offers significant nutritional value, being good source of carbohydrates, vitamins (particularly C and B6), minerals, and dietary fiber [1]. Its consumption varies significantly: adults in developed countries consume on average 50–150 g daily, whereas in Africa and Latin America, intake can reach 300–800 g/day, with important consequences for meeting population dietary requirements [2].

The potato is calorie-dense and nutritious and can play an important role in food security, supporting low-income farmers and vulnerable populations because most production is consumed locally rather than entering international trade [3,4]. Unlike major cereals, only a fraction of potato production reaches foreign markets; the price of potatoes is typically influenced by local costs rather than international market fluctuations. The potato also shows health-promoting properties, including reported anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects, which strengthen its value for food security and nutrition [5,6].

Despite its nutritional value, potato consumption has declined in parts of the Western world [4,7,8,9], with table potato consumption frequency projected to decrease further [4,10]. Concurrently, cultivated area and production volume have fallen in several European regions, notably Greece [11,12] and parts of Eastern Europe [4], highlighting the need to promote the potato’s nutritional, economic and environmental attributes [10,13].

The cultivation of potatoes has been dependent on the use of pesticides for a period exceeding a century. Intensified, concentrated agricultural production, undertaken on both small and large farms, has resulted in considerable and regionally variable pesticide utilization to manage a substantial, diverse pest complex [14]. Potato cultivation faces major challenges from Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), which damages foliage; Rhizoctonia solani Kühn, causing tuber and stem rot; Verticillium dahliae Klebahn, which is associated with potato wilt that compromises tuber yield and quality; Phytophthora infestans (Montagne) de Bary, which is responsible for potato late blight; and Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller), which affects tuber quality. Effective agrochemical management is essential for sustainable production and profitable yields [15,16,17,18,19]. Of paramount importance is the oomycete P. infestans, which can trigger rapid, large-scale epidemics and severe tuber losses; the mid-19th-century Irish potato famine, driven by widespread P. infestans outbreaks, remains a historical demonstration of the severe agronomic and socio-economic consequences of inadequate disease control [20].

Potatoes have been found to contain pesticide residues, according to a number of studies, thereby prompting both scientific and regulatory debate. The most notable case was the withdrawal of chlorpyrifos (organophosphate insecticide) authorizations under Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2020/2018. Based on available data, EFSA developed maximum residue level (MRL) proposals in 2017 and conducted a consumer risk assessment for chlorpyrifos residues in food commodities, including potatoes [21]. In a subsequent statement in 2019, EFSA [22] concluded that its human health assessment identified critical toxicological concerns and that the approval criteria for human health in Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 were not satisfied, a finding that contributed to the European Commission’s decision to revoke approval.

The regulatory scrutiny and revocation of chlorpyrifos demonstrate how scientific evidence on residues can trigger policy action; however, regulatory measures alone do not resolve public unease. Greek consumers have expressed significant concerns regarding pesticide residues in foodstuffs. Many have reported feelings of fear for their own and their families’ health, despite acknowledging the importance of pesticides in ensuring food security and supporting the national economy [23]. A correlation has been identified between a lack of awareness about MRLs and increased anxiety about residues. A significant proportion of the population erroneously believes that residues are completely prohibited [24,25]. Simoglou et al. [26] further document a reduced trust in governance and strong public desire for greater accountability, showing that distrust of authorities and opaque information flows amplify residue-related concerns. Analyses of consumer attitudes identify predictors of benefit–risk perceptions such as personal values, trust in control and certification systems, gender, and received information, indicating the need for targeted, transparent risk communication and more participatory governance in the agrο-food system [23,24,26].

The evidence from prospective cohorts on dietary exposure to pesticides and long-term health implications is limited and inconsistent. Several large cohort analyses have not identified a clear relationship between high dietary pesticide residue intake and overall cancer incidence or major subtypes [27]. Furthermore, reviews have highlighted that the number of studies per outcome is insufficient to permit confident evidence grading [28,29]. Conversely, Rebouillat et al. [30] identified an increased breast cancer risk in overweight and obese women linked to several common synthetic pesticides (chlorpyrifos, imazalil, malathion, thiabendazole), while a lower synthetic pesticide exposure showed inverse associations. Rebouillat et al. [31] further reported a positive association between high synthetic pesticide exposure and type 2 diabetes (T2D) risk in the full cohort and an inverse association for low exposure, restricted to participants with high dietary quality.

Increasing daily fruit and vegetable consumption by one serving confers substantially greater cancer prevention benefits than the potential cancer risks associated with pesticide residues [27,32,33]. However, observational evidence suggests that pesticide residues may alter other health benefits of produce. Higher pesticide residue exposure has been associated with attenuated cardiovascular benefits [34] and adverse reproductive outcomes [35,36]. Some studies indicate potential benefit from consuming organic produce for cancer outcomes [28], and analyses distinguishing low versus high pesticide residue produce report inverse associations of low residue intake with mortality but null associations for high residue intake [37]. Overall, population studies and risk assessments consistently find that fruit and vegetable consumption benefits far outweigh pesticide-related cancer risks, while residue-related effects on cardiovascular, reproductive, and mortality outcomes warrant further consideration [27,28,32,33,34,35,36,37].

Baudry et al. [28] conclude that the evidence linking dietary exposure to pesticide residue and non-communicable diseases is limited and inconsistent. In the field of cancer research, three cohort studies have yielded equivocal results. Two studies have identified positive associations for specific sites or subgroups, while one study has yielded no significant findings, resulting in an overall low evidence level. Conversely, other outcomes, including T2D, cardiovascular heart disease, and mortality, are based on single studies, which complicates the evaluation process. The review draws attention to several limitations, including residual confounding, exposure misclassification, short follow-up periods, limited generalizability beyond Western populations, and the challenges of randomized controlled trials. To establish stronger causal inferences, it is necessary to conduct prospective research incorporating quantitative exposure assessment, longer follow-up periods, diverse populations, biomarker data, new approach methodologies and analyses of chemical mixtures.

EFSA has performed retrospective probabilistic cumulative assessments and prioritization exercises on dietary pesticide residues. Assessments for acute neurotoxic and chronic thyroid effects (2014–2016) found exposures below regulatory concern, with no major change through 2018 [38,39,40]. A 2016–2018 probabilistic analysis of acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides across ten populations likewise found exposures below the threshold of concern [41]. To make future cumulative assessments tractable, EFSA [42] implemented a two-step probabilistic prioritization that first removed roughly 80% of substances unlikely to contribute to cumulative risk and then reduced candidate organ system targets by about 70%; this process identified the liver, kidneys, male reproductive system and the hematopoietic system as the organs with the highest priority and judged the resulting risk estimates to be conservative (more likely to overestimate than underestimate).

In this study, we estimated the dietary exposure of a cohort of Greek adult consumers and latent subgroups derived from latent profile analysis to pesticide residues from the consumption of various potato preparations. We used HELLANS consumption data derived from this study (May 2024–April 2025; N = 1318) and quantitative residue data from the National monitoring program [43]. We employed a deterministic approach based on measured residue data and compared the estimated daily intake with the acceptable daily intake (ADI). We included all detectable active substances (registered or not) reported in the 2023 monitoring program. The research topics are (a) distribution of summed quantities of potatoes consumed, including different types of potatoes and potato products (fried, oven-baked, boiled, potato salad, moussaka, potato chips), by consumer group per person in g/kg bw/day; (b) dietary exposure from potato consumption; and (c) whether this exposure poses a health risk.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Details of the Study

The primary data-collection instrument was an online questionnaire administered through the European Commission’s EUSurvey platform—an official survey-management system for public-opinion research. The questionnaire was developed to capture consumers’ perceptions of food safety regarding pesticide residues and to gather information on food consumption habits among adults permanently resident in Greece. The survey was conducted from May 2024 to April 2025 as part of the study “HELLANS 2024–2025” and produced 1318 completed responses. Participants were recruited through email invitations, social media posts, website announcements, and online news platforms. Upon entering the online questionnaire, they were informed about their rights, the study’s objectives, and the voluntary nature of participation, which includes the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. The process was entirely anonymous, with measures in place to ensure confidentiality and data security in accordance with the EU General Data Protection Regulation. Participants were assured that their data would be anonymized and used solely for research purposes. The study protocol was granted ethical approval by the Research Ethics and Deontology Committee of the Hellenic Mediterranean University, ensuring the integrity of the research. A contact email and researchers’ names were provided for participants to ask questions or seek clarification, fostering trust and ensuring they felt comfortable and informed throughout the process.

The questionnaire was designed based on Simoglou and Roditakis [23] and Trichopoulou et al. [44]. It was organized into three sections: sociodemographic data, attitudes, and food consumption. It recorded various factors, including gender, age, weight and height, education attainment, place of residence, physical activity, occupation, family income, presence of underage children, smoking habits, pesticide use habits, leisure time, and vegetarianism. Additionally, the questionnaire included closed questions on a 5-point Likert scale to assess participants’ perceptions and attitudes, with response levels ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. To further enrich our findings, the study incorporated open-ended questions aimed at gathering qualitative insights into consumer perceptions and views related to food safety and pesticide residues. This qualitative data were analyzed separately and published in a prior study, which explored themes concerning consumer attitudes and views on food safety within the context of food citizenship theory [26].

2.2. Food Consumption Data

The dietary intake was assessed through a 24 h dietary recall (24-DR) for each participant [44]. This method aims to document the foods and quantities consumed by an individual on specific days. The amounts were recorded through portion-size measurement aids (food images) that were organized in a digital library, which was integrated into the tool. Each image represented specific portion size, which was previously weighted and photographed in a stable presentation background (a plate, a spoon, and a fork). Portion sizes were those applied by the US NHANES 2019–2020 study [45].

The 24 h recall (24-DR) method is limited when zero intakes occur, since these often reflect episodic consumption. To address this limitation, a food propensity questionnaire (FPQ) was utilized. The FPQ estimates the likelihood of consumption independently of reported quantities, and then these estimates are combined with intake amounts to characterize the distribution of usual intake. The FPQ is a short, non-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire that records consumption frequency but not portion sizes [44,46].

From the questionnaire data, we constructed a consumption database for fruits and vegetables, including potatoes. The current study focuses on potato consumption, estimating typical potato product consumption (fried, oven-baked, boiled, potato salad, moussaka, potato chips) by adapting the National Cancer Institute (NCI) method modified by Vilone et al. [47] for EFSA. Specifically, consumption probability was determined using a logistic regression model with predictors including season, day of the week, gender, income, and covariates such as food consumption frequency and body weight. Typical consumption quantity for each food item was estimated by applying a generalized linear model with a gamma distribution, following the methodology of Vilone et al. [47].

2.3. Linking Food Consumption and Residue Concentration Data

The EFSA Pesticide Residue Intake Model (PRIMo) version 3.1 was utilized to estimate dietary exposure of participants to pesticide residues. PRIMo 3.1 is suitable for post-marketing dietary risk assessment and can estimate both chronic and acute exposure arising from residues measured in monitoring programs [48]. Input data included mean potato residue concentrations from the National pesticide residue monitoring program for 2023, which were the most recent, fully published and quality-assured data available at the time of analysis, publicly available in the Zenodo repository for EC-funded research [43], together with mean consumption and body weight distributions derived from our study. Negative samples were handled by substituting the limit of quantification (LOQ) with LOQ/2, representing an intermediate yet conservative approach compared to using LOQ or 0. This method aligns with standard practice for left-censored residue data [48]. Chronic exposure analyses combined the probability of potato consumption (gr/kg bw/day) with mean residue concentrations (mg/kg) to estimate intake. Estimated intakes were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI; mg/kg bw/day) for each active substance, obtained from the EU Pesticide Database [49]. For the proportion of potatoes in the moussaka composition, 20% was adopted according to Ritzoulis [50]. No processing factors were applied to ensure a conservative assumption that all residues in the raw food will reach the end consumer, following Quijano et al. [51].

2.4. Identifying Latent Consumer Subgroups

Concurrently, we aimed to investigate the potential existence of latent subgroups with distinct characteristics influencing potato consumption, with possible variations in pesticide residue exposure. A principal components analysis (PCA) was first applied for dimensionality reduction and extraction of the main components that summarize the data into a smaller set of composite variables. We applied an eigenvalue threshold greater than 1 to retain principal components (PCs). After applying oblique (promax) rotation, the rotated loadings displayed a markedly simplified PC loading pattern, with each variable loading onto a single PC. We retained only those variables whose loadings were greater than or equal to 0.50. We evaluated the adequacy of the PCA using two key statistical tests: Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test, which measures sampling adequacy with values ranging from 0 to 1, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity, where a significant result indicates that at least some pairwise correlations among variables are not equal to zero [52]. McDonald’s ω (omega) reliability coefficients of internal consistency for the scale variables loading on a single principal component were calculated. To obtain a single measure for each PC, the variables loading on a single PC were combined using composite scores for further analysis [52].

Latent profile analysis (LPA) [53,54] was employed using the R-module tidyLPA in jamovi 2.7.5 [55] to identify homogeneous participant groups based on principal components. Model selection considered multiple fit indices (AIC, BIC, SABIC), stability measures (entropy, BLRT), posterior classification probabilities (>0.80) and class sizes (>5% of the sample). The final two-class solution was selected by balancing model fit, class sizes, and substantive interpretability [56]. The two-class solution was preferred because it demonstrated satisfactory fit (significant BLRT vs. the 1-class model), acceptable class prevalence (>5%), high posterior assignment probabilities (0.79–0.95), and a theoretically meaningful interpretation (Concerned vs. Confident Consumers). As part of profile validation, bootstrap resampling was performed to evaluate confidence intervals of the subgroup estimates [57]. Additionally, independent samples t-tests were performed to compare principal components means, and chi-square (χ²) tests were used to analyze demographic differences between the two profiles. Results from both sets of analyses supported the distinctiveness of the profiles, thereby reinforcing the validity of the classification and providing a comprehensive characterization of the two latent groups.

To evaluate potential differences in dietary exposure to pesticide residues across consumer segments, the PRIMo 3.1 model was applied to a dataset containing body weights and typical consumption patterns for each latent profile.

The analyses were performed with the open-source statistical analysis software Jamovi 2.7.5 using the R programming language [55].

3. Results

3.1. Profile of Survey Participants

A total of 1318 participants from all Greek regions completed the questionnaire. The study focuses on individuals aged from 18 to over 65 years old who reside throughout Greece. In Appendix A, Table A1 presents the sociodemographic characteristics of the survey participants. Both genders were represented adequately (females 57.9%). Participants spanned all age groups, with 35.8% residing in northern Greece, 31.9% in central Greece and 32.2% in southern Greece. Most participants had attained at least a high school education. The employment status revealed that 55.3% were civil servants, 17.2% private employees, 10.8% self-employed persons, 6.8% university students, and 1.9% farmers. Additionally, various individual habits were documented, including free spare time, smoking, sports habits, and vegetarian attitude, as outlined in Table A1.

3.2. Analysis of Participants’ Attitudes and Perceptions

This section presents the findings related to participants’ views and perceptions regarding pesticide use, highlighting the key factors that shape their attitudes. The analysis aims to provide insights into how beliefs about food safety and environmental concerns influence consumer behavior, as revealed through the data collected.

3.2.1. Key Factors Influencing Participants’ Attitudes

The results of the principal components analysis (PCA) offer insights into the connections among the original variables concerning beliefs about food safety and the consumption patterns of fruits and vegetables. The analysis identified several principal components (Appendix A, Table A2): The first component, SPS (Specialized Sources), emphasizes specialized sources of information, with high loadings for official websites, public agency bulletins, and specialized journals, indicating their significant role in consumer education. The second component, PAG (Professional and Advocacy Guidance), highlights the importance of dietitians, consumer organizations, and health professionals in shaping consumer beliefs and behaviors regarding food safety and nutrition. The third component, POC (Potato Consumption), pertains to potato consumption, with strong associations with various forms of potato dishes, such as moussaka, potato salad, etc., reflecting participants’ preferences. The fourth component, GES (General Sources), addresses general sources of information, including television, radio, and print media, which significantly shape consumer perceptions. The fifth component, FVC (Fruit and Vegetable Consumption), relates to the consumption of fruits and vegetables, with substantial loadings for both fresh and processed varieties, underscoring their importance in participants’ diets. The sixth component, CPD (Certified Products Consumption), captures the consumption of certified products, indicating a strong consumer trust in certified and organic products, as well as a belief in the safety of pesticide application. The seventh component, PIC (Pesticide Confidence), focuses on beliefs regarding pesticide safety, with high loadings for perceptions that proper pesticide application ensures consumer safety and that the benefits of pesticides exceed their potential risks. The total explained variance from the principal components reaches 63.33%, with the first component accounting for 12.24% of the variance. Scale reliability indices (McDonald’s ω) range from 0.66 to 0.82, indicating good scale reliability. Additionally, Bartlett’s test of sphericity and the KMO measure of sampling adequacy confirm the suitability of the data for PCA.

3.2.2. Latent Profile Analysis

The selected 2-class solution (LogLik = −14,728.397) produced AIC = 29,522.795, BIC = 29,693.862, and sample size adjusted BIC = 29,589.037. The BLRT comparing the 2- versus 1-class model was significant (BLRT = 1190.629, p = 0.010), supporting the 2-class solution. Despite adequate class sizes, with estimated proportions of 30.6% and 69.4%, and acceptable posterior probabilities ranging from 0.793 to 0.947, the entropy value of 0.627 suggests a reasonable level of class separation, albeit with some classification uncertainty; therefore, model interpretability was used alongside fit indices to justify the final solution. The two latent profiles were theoretically interpretable based on their principal component differences. Welch’s t-tests comparing profile means showed significant and directionally consistent differences on most components (Table 1): PIC (Pesticide confidence attitude); CPD (Certified products consumption); FVC (Fruit/vegetable consumption); GES (General sources of information); POC (Potato consumption habit). Two components did not differ between profiles (PAG: Professional and advocacy guidance; SPS: Specialized sources of information).

Table 1. Characterization of perceptions between two classes of respondent groups identified through the latent profile analysis based on principal components (Independent Samples t-Test: Class 1, N = 915, “Concerned consumers”; Class 2, N = 403, “Confident consumers”).

Principal Components	Welch’s t statistic (1)	df	p
PIC: Pesticide confidence attitude	–6.421	790.92	<0.001
CPD: Certified products consumption	4.873	726.342	<0.001
FVC: Fruit/vegetable consumption	16.66	554.772	<0.001
GES: General sources of information	3.839	728.354	<0.001
POC: Potato consumption habit	–7.242	427.739	<0.001
PAG: Professional and advocacy guidance	1.325	687.589	0.186
SPS: Specialized sources of information	0.168	746.951	0.866

⁽¹⁾: Negative t-statistics imply that Class 1 shows lower levels or patterns compared to Class 2 for the specific principal components.

Also, chi-squared tests revealed significant demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, education, profession, family income, etc. (Table 2). These differences provide substantive support for distinct, meaningful profiles (e.g., one profile characterized by higher pesticide concern, higher fruit/vegetable consumption and greater certified product consumption; the other profile characterized by greater pesticide confidence and different potato consumption habits), strengthening the decision to retain the 2-class solution despite moderate entropy.

Table 2. Sociodemographic profile of the two identified classes of respondents.

Background Variables	Class 1 (N = 915)	Class 2 (N = 403)		Chi-Squared Test
	“Concerned Consumers”	“Confident Consumers”
Gender	Male	36.4% (−6.3) (1)	55.1% (6.3)	Χ2 = 40.1; df = 1;
	Female	63.6% (6.3)	44.9% (−6.3)	p < 0.001
Age	18–44	27.1% (−2.0)	32.5% (2.0)	Χ2 = 4.0; df = 1;
	≥45	72.9% (2.0)	67.5% (−2.0)	p = 0.046
Education	Secondary education	13.1% (−3.8)	21.3% (3.8)	Χ2 = 14.4; df = 1;
	Higher education	86.9% (3.8)	78.7% (−3.8)	p < 0.001
Foodborne illnesses outweigh pesticide risks	Not in favor	78.1% (3.3)	69.7% (−3.3)	Χ2 = 10.7; df = 1;
	In favor	21.9% (−3.3)	30.3% (3.3)	p < 0.001
Profession	Civil servants	59.3% (4.4)	46.2% (−4.4)	X2 = 26.9; df = 6;
	Farmers	1.6% (−1.0)	2.5% (1.0)	p < 0.001
	Private employees	14.6% (−3.7)	23.1% (3.7)
	Retired	4.3% (−1.1)	5.7% (1.1)
	Self-employed	10.8% (0.1)	10.7% (0.1)
	Unemployed	3.5% (0.4)	3.0% (−0.4)
	University students	5.5% (−2.1)	8.9% (2.1)
Pesticide residues concern	No	2.4% (−11.8)	21.8% (11.8)	Χ2 = 138.1; df = 1;
	Yes	97.6% (11.8)	78.2% (−11.8)	p < 0.001
Family income	0–10,000 €	7.4% (−3.3)	13.2% (3.3)	Χ2 = 17.3; df = 2;
	10,001–20,000 €	36.3% (−1.6)	40.9% (1.6)	p < 0.001
	>20,001 €	56.3% (3.5)	45.9% (−3.5)
Avoidance of perceived contaminated food	No	25.5% (−7.4)	46.2% (7.4)	Χ2 = 55.2; df = 1;
	Yes	74.5% (7.4)	53.8% (−7.4)	p < 0.001
Physical activity	No	38.0% (−4.2)	50.4% (4.2)	Χ2 = 17.5; df = 1;
	Yes	62.0% (4.2)	49.6% (−4.2)	p = 0.001

⁽¹⁾ Adjusted Pearson residuals (in brackets) > +2.0 denote significantly more cases than expected; residuals < −2.0 denote significantly fewer.

3.2.3. Latent Profiles Descriptions

Group 1: Concerned Consumers (LPA1)

The Concerned Consumers group (N = 915) is characterized by a strong awareness and apprehension regarding pesticide use in food production. This group prioritizes the consumption of certified products (CPD), reflecting their commitment to food safety and quality. Moreover, they exhibit a high level of fruit and vegetable consumption (FVC), which underscores their preference for a healthy diet rich in natural foods. Interestingly, this group shows a lower tendency towards potato consumption habits (POC), suggesting that they may perceive potatoes as less healthy or potentially more problematic due to pesticide concerns. Their reliance on general sources of information (GES) further indicates a desire to stay informed about food safety issues, although they may not seek specialized knowledge more than Group 2. Demographically, this group is predominantly composed of females (63.6%), which is significantly higher proportion compared to the Confident Consumers group. They tend to be older, with 72.9% of participants aged 45 and above, which is proportionally higher than expected by null hypothesis. Educationally, the majority hold higher education degrees (86.9%), which may contribute to their heightened awareness of food safety issues. Professionally, they are largely civil servants (59.3%), suggesting a stable professional background that may influence their consumption choices. A significant majority (97.6%) expresses concern about pesticide residues, indicating a strong belief that these residues pose a health risk. This concern is further reflected in their dietary habits, as 74.5% actively avoid perceived contaminated food, which is considerably higher than their counterparts. Additionally, they engage in physical activity (62.0%), which aligns with their health-conscious attitudes, although they may not seek professional/advocacy guidance on food safety issues more than Group 2.

Group 2: Confident Consumers (LPA2)

In contrast, the Confident Consumers group (N = 403) reports comparatively low concern about food safety and pesticide use. Their positive attitudes towards pesticide confidence (PIC) reveal a sense of assurance in the safety of the foods they consume. While they may consume fewer certified products (CPD) compared to the Concerned Consumers, their dietary choices reflect a broader acceptance of various food options. This group tends to have higher potato consumption habits (POC), indicating a willingness to include this staple in their diet without significant concern for pesticide residues. They rely less on general sources of information (GES), suggesting that they are less influenced by external advice regarding food safety. Demographically, this group has a higher proportion of males (55.1%), which is significantly higher than in the Concerned Consumers group. They also have a younger demographic profile, with 32.5% aged 18 to 44, which is proportionally higher than that of the other group. They are more diverse in terms of educational background. Professionally, this group includes a notable percentage of private employees (23.1%) and university students (8.9%), indicating a broader range of occupations. They show a lower level of concern regarding pesticide residues, with 78.2% expressing worry, proportionally lower than expected by null hypothesis, which is significantly lower than the Concerned Consumers. Additionally, a significantly higher percentage (30.3%) in this group believes that foodborne illnesses outweigh the risks associated with pesticide residues, reflecting their more relaxed approach to concerns about agrοchemicals. Their dietary habits reflect a greater acceptance of various food options, as evidenced by a higher tendency to consume potatoes. Additionally, 46.2% do not actively avoid perceived contaminated food, reflecting less proactive food-safety behavior. This group also has a lower rate of physical activity (49.6%), which may also influence their overall health outlook.

3.3. Assessment of Exposure and Evaluation of Risk

This section outlines the results of the estimated dietary exposure to pesticide residues and the corresponding risk assessment. The study aims to assess the safety of pesticide residue intake through potato consumption, providing insights into the levels of exposure relative to established regulatory standards.

Table 3 summarizes the findings related to average potato consumption and mean body weights within the HELLANS 2024–2025 study. It includes data for the entire cohort of adult participants and two latent profile subgroups, providing a comparative view of consumption patterns. Estimated mean consumption was 1.22 g/kg bw/day for entire sample, 0.74 g/kg bw/day for LPA1 and 2.30 g/kg bw/day for LPA2. Bootstrap resampling (5000 iterations, bias-corrected accelerated) produced consistent coefficient estimates and narrow 95% confidence intervals (intercept = 0.741, 95% CI [0.669–0.813], p < 0.001); membership effect = 1.554, 95% CI [1.383–1.755], p < 0.001); the reported bootstrap bias values were negligible (≈0.000), supporting the stability of the profile-level estimates.

Table 3. Summary statistics of potato consumption (g/kg body weight/day)—overall sample and LPA subgroups (HELLANS 2024–2025).

Sample Groups		N	Mean Body Weight (kg)	Mean Consumption (g/bw/Day)	SE (1)	IQR (2)	Percentiles
							50th	95th	99th
HELLANS (2024–2025)	Adults—overall study sample	1318	78.7	1.216	0.036	1.162	0.856	3.159	6.779
HELLANS (2024–2025)—LPA1	Adults—latent profile subgroup No.1	915	77.9	0.741	0.015	0.706	0.650	1.648	1.921
HELLANS (2024–2025)—LPA2	Adults—latent profile subgroup No.2	403	80.6	2.296	0.093	1.501	1.997	5.587	9.689

⁽¹⁾: SE: Standard error of mean. ⁽²⁾: IQR: Interquartile range.

Table A3 (Appendix A) shows the results of the National monitoring program (2023). Overall, the proportion of positive samples was notably low, with detections ranging from 0.4% to 3.9% across various pesticides. Among the detected residues, the highest mean concentration was observed for mancozeb at 0.114 mg/kg, while the lowest was recorded for metalaxyl at 0.015 mg/kg. Conversely, most samples exhibited non-detects, with percentages ranging from 96.1% to 99.6%, indicating a predominant absence of pesticide residues in the analyzed samples. Furthermore, in terms of average residue concentration across the sample set, most pesticides demonstrated stable levels, largely remaining at 0.005 mg/kg.

Table A4 (Appendix A) shows the average dietary exposure to various pesticide residues resulting from potato consumption. Using the EFSA Pesticide Residue Intake Model (PRIMo) ver. 3.1, we estimated chronic exposure by combining 2023 national monitoring mean residue concentrations with consumption and body-weight distributions derived from the present study; estimated intakes were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) values for each active substance. In the HELLANS 2024–2025, estimated dietary intakes for all examined active substances were substantially below their established ADIs. Exposures expressed as percentages of ADI across substances and groups ranged from approximately 0.00% to 1.72%, with the largest single contribution observed for fenamiphos in the HELLANS LPA2 subgroup (1.72% of ADI). At the entire sample level, estimates for individual compounds in the HELLANS study were uniformly low (typically ≤ 0.91% of ADI), and the aggregated Hazard Index values indicate minimal cumulative exposure (entire HELLANS = 0.014; LPA2 = 0.027; LPA1 = 0.009).

The two latent profile analysis subgroups differed quantitatively but not qualitatively: LPA2 consistently exhibited modestly higher estimated intakes across compounds than LPA1, yet these differences remained negligible relative to toxicological reference values and did not alter the risk characterization. Overall, the results demonstrate that dietary exposure to the assessed pesticides in the HELLANS 2024–2025 study—including both latent subgroups—is far below regulatory ADIs and does not indicate concern for chronic health effects under the assumptions and methods applied.

4. Discussion

The present study examined Greek consumers’ beliefs and consumption patterns related to potato intake and pesticide residues, utilizing a combination of survey-based attitudinal profiling and dietary exposure assessment (N = 1318). Overall, two distinct consumer profiles emerged: one characterized by heightened concern for food safety, a preference for certified products, and a higher intake of fruits and vegetables; the other displaying greater confidence in food safety and higher potato consumption. Notably, the quantitative exposure estimates from potato consumption were consistently below established toxicological reference values (acceptable daily intakes, ADIs). These findings contextualize consumer perceptions of pesticide risk alongside measured exposure and underscore significant implications for risk communication and policy development.

The present study integrated three complementary data streams—sociodemographic profiling, psychometric segmentation, and quantitative dietary exposure assessment—to evaluate the health risk posed by pesticide residues in potatoes consumed by Greek adults (N = 1318). The sample comprised 57.9% female participants, predominantly middle-aged (40.9% aged 45–54 y), and highly educated (75.7% holding university qualifications). Geographically, the sample included participants from northern (35.8%), central (31.9%) and southern Greece (32.2%), with 77.5% residing in urban areas. Compared with the 2021 ELSTAT census (51.1% females; 33.2% secondary and 21.1% tertiary education) [58], the cohort exhibits a modest gender skew and a significantly higher proportion of university-educated participants. This discrepancy suggests that the findings should be generalized to general Greek population with appropriate caution.

This demographic skew may limit the external validity of the overall prevalence estimates. To mitigate this, we performed a latent profile analysis (LPA) [53,54], which identified two psychometrically distinct profiles: “Concerned” (LPA1) and “Confident” (LPA2) consumers. We report exposure and risk metrics separately by profile because (i) LPA captures intra-sample heterogeneity [59], (ii) the profiles differ significantly on age, gender, education, and consumption behaviors, and (iii) profile-specific results yield different exposure patterns: LPA1 (i.e., older, predominantly female, higher education) shows mean exposures well below the ADI, while LPA2 (i.e., younger, more male) shows higher mean exposures, though still within safety limits. By stratifying results based on empirically derived latent profiles and reporting profile-specific uncertainty, we more directly model intra-sample heterogeneity [59], enhancing the interpretability of our findings. This person-centered approach is shown to produce more relevant subgroup estimates and latent classes that are more representative of the underlying population [53,60]. Profile-level confidence intervals and bootstrap-based uncertainty estimates clarified the precision of our analysis and highlighted potential biases [57].

Latent profile analysis identified two distinct consumer groups, reflecting the underlying demographic and behavioral differences. The Concerned Consumers (LPA1; N = 915) consisted of older, predominantly highly educated women who expressed a strong perception of the risks associated with pesticides. This group preferred certified products and consumed relatively small amounts of potatoes (mean intake 0.74 g kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹; 99th percentile intake 1.92 g kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹). In contrast, the Confident Consumers group (LPA2; N = 403) was younger and more gender-balanced, though notably male-dominated, featuring a modestly higher proportion of secondary-educated members and fewer with higher education. This group exhibited a lower risk perception and relied less on product certification (Table 2). Additionally, they reported substantially higher potato consumption (mean intake 2.30 g kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹; 99th percentile intake 9.69 g kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹). These behavioral differences were reflected in the principal components structure, with the “Pesticide Confidence” component being significantly higher on LPA2 and “Certified Product” and “Fruit/Vegetable Consumption” components being significantly higher on LPA1 (Table 1).

The dietary exposure results (Table A4) show that pesticide residues in Greek potatoes (National monitoring program 2023) remain far below the toxicological safety limits, both for the average consumer and for the most extreme (99th percentile) intake scenarios. Across the entire HELLANS 2024–2025 cohort, the mean intakes of all pesticides were ≤ 0.91% of their respective acceptable daily intakes (ADIs); the highest mean contribution came from the organophosphate nematicide fenamiphos (0.91% of ADI). When the most extreme consumption is considered, the largest relative exposure again belongs to fenamiphos (5.08% of ADI), followed by the pyrethroid insecticide lambda-cyhalothrin (1.36%) and the organophosphate insecticide/nematicide fosthiazate (1.02%). Every other pesticide stayed at ≤0.18% of its ADI even under this worst-case consumption.

Stratifying the data by the two latent profile groups reveals a consistent pattern. The Concerned Consumers (LPA1) display mean exposure levels that are lower than those of the overall cohort (e.g., fenamiphos 0.56% of ADI, lambda-cyhalothrin 0.15% of ADI), and the most extreme consumption values are modest (fenamiphos 1.44% of ADI, lambda-cyhalothrin 0.38% of ADI). Confident Consumers (LPA2) demonstrate higher mean intakes (fenamiphos 1.72% of ADI, lambda-cyhalothrin 0.46% of ADI). Furthermore, their intakes for extreme consumption are even more pronounced (fenamiphos 7.27% of ADI, lambda-cyhalothrin 1.94% of ADI). Nevertheless, these worst-case figures remain considerably below the ADI threshold.

The cumulative Hazard Index (HI), defined as the sum of exposures to different substances expressed as a fraction of their acceptable daily intake (ADI), corroborates the low-risk picture. The overall HI is 0.014, with values of 0.009 for LPA1 and 0.027 for LPA2. At the highest levels of consumption, the indices increase to 0.080, 0.023 and 0.114, respectively. Nevertheless, these values remain an order of magnitude below the critical value of 1, which would indicate a potential health concern [61]. Consequently, despite the Confident Consumers’ higher potato consumption, their absolute pesticide intakes remain well within regulatory safety margins. Additionally, the Concerned Consumers’ lower intake further mitigates an already negligible exposure level.

These findings indicate that the differing attitudes identified by psychometric profiling do not result in significant differences in toxicological risk. Both consumer segments are exposed to pesticide residues at levels well below ADIs, supporting the conclusion that current pesticide practices on Greek potatoes are adequately protective. Therefore, risk communication efforts can prioritize reassuring consumers rather than addressing an actual health threat.

The gap between perceived risk (heterogeneous across LPA subgroups but collectively high within the entire cohort) and actual toxicological risk illuminates the profound disconnect between consumer perception and scientific evidence. This discrepancy may stem from various factors, including the public’s heightened sensitivity to chemical dangers irrespective of exposure level, as demonstrated by Slovic et al. [62]. While risk perception differs between LPA1 (showing greater concern) and LPA2 (displaying lower concern), the overarching sentiment across the participants reflects a heightened worry about pesticide exposure. Earlier studies have shown that pesticide residues in food are a major concern for Greek consumers, who directly link them to health issues [23]. Greek consumers ranked pesticide residues as the foremost food safety concern, followed by concerns related to animal diseases and veterinary pharmaceutical residues in meat [63]. However, the empirical data clearly indicate that these concerns are not supported by the evidence, aligning with prior research that demonstrates a divergence between consumer perceptions of food safety and actual measured risk [64]. For Concerned Consumers, the data provides concrete reassurance: even their most extreme consumption scenarios remain substantially below the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), effectively alleviating potential health concerns. Similarly, for Confident Consumers, the scientific findings offer a nuanced perspective: despite higher potato consumption, their exposure to pesticide residues remains negligibly low and well within established safety parameters. This targeted, evidence-based communication strategy can effectively bridge the psychological divide between consumer perceptions and scientific reality, promoting a more rational and informed understanding of food safety [62,64,65]. Consequently, these results imply that regulatory efforts should focus on sustaining the existing standards for potato safety.

These findings are consistent with previous regulatory monitoring in the European Union. The 2021–2023 monitoring programs indicate that estimated dietary exposure—both acute and chronic—to individual pesticide residues with available toxicological values is low for most assessed EU subpopulation groups [66]. Retrospective probabilistic cumulative assessments from 2014 to 2016 indicated that exposures related to acute neurotoxic and chronic thyroid effects remained below regulatory concern, with no significant changes through 2018 [38,39,40]. Furthermore, the assessment of craniofacial alterations [42] confirmed that established regulatory thresholds were not exceeded.

Studies indicate that the cumulative risk from pesticide residues in potatoes is low. Reis et al. [62] reported that insecticide residues in potatoes were below the EU’s maximum residue levels (MRLs), posing no health concerns. Similarly, Jensen et al. [67] found that the Hazard Index for chronic dietary exposure to monitored pesticides, including those in potatoes, was below 1 for both children and adults in Denmark, indicating that there is no risk of adverse health effects. Witczak et al. [68] assessed organophosphate pesticides in fruits and vegetables, including potatoes, available in Poland, and found residue levels significantly below MRLs. Their evaluation revealed estimated risk within safe limits, suggesting minimal risk to human health from organophosphate pesticide exposure. Additionally, Quijano et al. [51] investigated chronic cumulative exposure to organophosphate, carbamate, and pyrethroid pesticides in Valencia, Spain, resulting from the consumption of fruits and vegetables, including potatoes. They found that the chronic cumulative intake of analyzed pesticide residues was relatively low compared to the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), indicating no expected long-term consumer risk.

In order to ensure that the communication regarding these findings is both effective and evidence-based, it is essential that the communication be nuanced. It is crucial to underscore the considerable safety margins associated with the Concerned profile while ascertaining safe exposure levels for the Confident profile [63,64,65]. The potato constitutes a pivotal component of global food security, furnishing substantial nutritional value at a relatively low cost, thereby addressing dietary requirements in vulnerable populations worldwide [1,3,4]. The findings of this study corroborate the hypothesis that chronic toxicological risks posed by potato consumption are negligible, with pesticide residues consistently falling below permissible thresholds. This reinforces the status of potatoes as a fundamental food source.

Furthermore, the historical impact of P. infestans during the Great Irish Famine serves to emphasize the critical necessity of protecting agricultural production from such threats. The severity of this pathogen caused significant humanitarian crises and a drastic population decline in Ireland [69]. In contemporary contexts, ongoing control efforts are imperative for ensuring food security, as their combination with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies facilitates the maintenance of crop productivity while mitigating outbreaks of the disease. Recent research indicates that effective disease management is challenged by the emergence of new, virulent strains of P. infestans that exhibit resistance to commonly used fungicides. Such developments necessitate continuous adaptation and education regarding best practices to ensure sustainable agriculture [16,70]. Furthermore, effective public communication is vital for fostering understanding of agricultural needs and garnering support for necessary crop protection measures [26].

This study is subject to certain limitations related to the available data. The online questionnaire may introduce selection bias by excluding individuals with limited digital literacy, reducing representativeness. The sample is overrepresented by women and highly educated participants, limiting generalizability to the Greek population. Dietary assessment via 24-h recalls is susceptible to recall bias and poorly captures episodic consumption; although the food propensity questionnaire (FPQ) and linear regression partly mitigate this, the FPQs inevitably lack portion-size information. Pesticide residue analysis used a single year of National monitoring data, which may not reflect seasonal or interannual variability; future studies will extend the analysis to include data from multiple years and a broader range of food commodities, ensuring a more comprehensive assessment of pesticide exposure. Assuming residues in raw foods reach consumers unchanged, without considering any processing factors, is likely to overestimate exposure. Results from latent profile analysis (LPA) depend on model specification, and alternative models may yield different class solutions. The selected model prioritized interpretability to enhance the clarity of the findings. Finally, estimated intakes were compared with the ADI for each active substance. While this approach provides a robust assessment of chronic exposure, it does not consider potential subclinical or long-term effects, which may be particularly significant for sensitive groups. Future studies should seek to address these limitations by incorporating longitudinal studies, biomarker analysis, and more advanced modeling techniques that account for individual susceptibility and cumulative exposure over time, as well as data from sensitive populations.

5. Conclusions

This study offers insights into Greek consumers’ beliefs and consumption patterns regarding potato intake and pesticide residues. Two distinct consumer profiles were identified: the Concerned Consumers, characterized by heightened awareness and a preference for certified products, and the Confident Consumers, who exhibit greater confidence in food safety and higher potato consumption. Despite the differences in risk perception and consumption behaviors, both groups demonstrated pesticide exposure levels well below established toxicological reference values (ADIs), indicating that current agricultural practices effectively safeguard public health.

The findings underscore a notable disconnect between consumer perceptions of pesticide risk and actual dietary exposure, with most participants expressing concern despite empirical evidence showing negligible health risks. This gap underscores the necessity for focused risk communication strategies that reassure consumers regarding the safety of potato consumption while addressing their concerns. Additionally, effective public education on food safety is critical for bridging the gap between scientific evidence and consumer perceptions. By fostering understanding and awareness, these initiatives can enhance consumer trust and support for agricultural practices.

Moreover, the study’s methodological approach, integrating sociodemographic profiling, psychometric segmentation, and quantitative dietary exposure assessment, enhances the robustness of the findings. The results suggest that regulatory efforts should focus on maintaining existing safety standards for potatoes, as current practices are sufficient to protect public health. Overall, the study reinforces the role of potatoes as a vital component of food security, providing essential nutritional value without posing significant toxicological risks.

However, it is important to note that our sample, which was recruited online, overrepresents women and highly educated individuals. This limitation restricts the generalizability of our results to the broader Greek population. Future research should aim to include a more diverse and representative sample to address this bias. Potential strategies may involve employing mixed-method approaches that combine online and offline recruitment techniques, along with targeted outreach to underrepresented groups. By implementing these strategies, future studies can offer a more comprehensive understanding of pesticide exposure and risk perceptions across various demographic segments.