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Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 July 2025) | Viewed by 6313

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Alexandre Maniçoba da Rosa Ferraz Jardim

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Guest Editor

Department of Biodiversity, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Av. 24A, 1515, Rio Claro 13506-900, São Paulo, Brazil
Interests: abiotic stresses; salinity; physiological and biochemical changes in plants; salt stress tolerance; reactive oxygen species (ROS); ion homeostasis; ion toxicity; agricultural challenges in arid and semi-arid regions
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Dr. Toshik Iarley da Silva

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Guest Editor

Center for Agricultural, Environmental, and Biological Sciences, Federal University of Recôncavo of Bahia – UFRB, Campus Universitário, Cruz das Almas 44380-000, Brazil
Interests: plant physiology; abiotic stresses; salt and draught stress tolerance; phytohormones; antioxidant system enzymes; reactive oxygen species; biostimulants; horticulture; vegetables; edible flowers

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Abiotic stress, more specifically saline and water stress, poses a significant threat to plants’ survival and productivity, causing substantial losses in global crop yields. The adverse effects caused by water stress (drought and flood) and saline stress are maximized with environmental conditions. Consequently, there is a pressing need for comprehensive research delving into the molecular, cellular, tissue, anatomical, morphological, and physiological mechanisms underlying plants’ resilience to salt and water stress. This Special Issue of Plants (https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plants) aims to collate insights into plant responses to salt and water stress and propose innovative strategies for enhancing their resilience. By synthesizing a wealth of information, we aspire to advance our understanding of plants’ adaptation mechanisms and foster the development of effective solutions to mitigate the impact of salt and water stress. We invite research articles that address the following topics: ROS; salinity; drought; flood stress; signaling molecules; antioxidants; and oxidative stress. Finally, we are particularly interested in understanding how these combined stresses impact plants’ responses and adaptations, rather than studying individual stress factors in isolation.

Dr. Alexandre Maniçoba da Rosa Ferraz Jardim
Dr. Toshik Iarley da Silva
Guest Editors

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Keywords

antioxidant defense
lipid peroxidation
oxidative stress
phytohormones
stress signaling
physiological and biochemical changes in plants
salt stress tolerance
reactive oxygen species (ROS)
drought stress responses
ion toxicity
redox and ROS balance
enzymes

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 1549 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water-Holding Capacity, Ion Release, and Saturation Dynamics of Mosses as Micro-Scale Buffers Against Water Stress in Semi-Arid Ecosystems

by Serhat Ursavas and Semih Edis

Plants 2025, 14(17), 2728; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14172728 - 2 Sep 2025

Abstract

Mosses are key players in semi-arid ecosystems; however, the functional roles of mosses on hydrologic buffering and water quality have hardly been assessed. In the present study, the water storage, saturation dynamics, and ion release experiment of a set of four moss species (Hypnum lacunosum, Homalothecium lutescens, Dicranum scoparium, and Tortella tortuosa) was performed by a more simplified immersion and drainage procedure with water chemistry analyses. All species reached a sorption equilibrium between 10 and 20 min, with pleurocarpous taxa retaining 20–35% more water than acrocarpous species and possessing water-holding capacities (WHCs) between 300% and 700% of dry weight. Species-specific differences in water chemistry (pH, EC, and TDS) were observed: Tortella tortuosa presented the greatest ionic flux, and Hypnum lacunosum presented little variation in pH and electrical conductivity. These findings imply that the mosses operate as micro-scale buffers regulating both water quantity and water quality, and thereby the soil stability, infiltration, and drought resilience. The combined hydrological and biogeochemical view offers a novel understanding of bryophyte ecohydrology and highlights the significance of mosses in the practice of watershed management and climate-change mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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15 pages, 2161 KB

Open AccessArticle

CPK2 Enhances ABA Sensitivity in Seed Germination and Root Growth by Promoting ABA-Induced ABI5 Expression and ABI5 Protein Stability

by Xiaoju Liang, Wei Zhu, Weifeng Xu and Jiansheng Liang

Plants 2025, 14(17), 2671; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14172671 - 27 Aug 2025

Viewed by 274

Abstract

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a crucial phytohormone that functions as a master regulator of plant growth and development, as well as responses to diverse abiotic stresses, by integrating environmental cues with developmental programs. The transcription factor ABA INSENSITIVE 5 (ABI5) functions at the central hub of the ABA signaling pathway and mediates the expression of its target genes. Emerging evidence reveals extensive crosstalk between calcium-dependent protein kinases (CPKs)-mediated calcium signaling and the ABA-ABI5 cascade, enabling plants to balance growth and stress responses. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the interactions between CPKs and ABA-ABI5 signaling are still elusive. In this study, we revealed that CPK2 enhances sensitivity to ABA during both seed germination and seedling root growth by promoting ABA-induced ABI5 expression and increasing ABA-mediated ABI5 stability. Compared to the wildtype (Col-0), the CPK2-OE line exhibited the highest sensitivity to ABA in both seed germination and root growth, while the cpk2abi5-7 double mutant showed the least sensitivity. The single mutants cpk2 and abi5-7, as well as the abi5-7CPK2-OE2 line, displayed intermediate phenotypes, suggesting that CPK2 acts upstream of ABI5. Biochemical and molecular biological studies revealed that CPK2 physically interacts with ABI5 and directly phosphorylates it at Ser42, Ser145, and Thr201. Moreover, both ABA-induced ABI5 expression and protein accumulation were significantly reduced in cpk2 mutants upon ABA treatment. Taken together, these findings provide compelling evidence that CPK2 exacerbates the ABA inhibition of seed germination and root growth by enhancing both the expression and stability of ABI5, thereby reinforcing stress adaptation during early plant development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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33 pages, 5718 KB

Open AccessArticle

Progressive Water Deficit Impairs Soybean Growth, Alters Metabolic Profiles, and Decreases Photosynthetic Efficiency

by Renan Falcioni, Caio Almeida de Oliveira, Nicole Ghinzelli Vedana, Weslei Augusto Mendonça, João Vitor Ferreira Gonçalves, Daiane de Fatima da Silva Haubert, Dheynne Heyre Silva de Matos, Amanda Silveira Reis, Werner Camargos Antunes, Luis Guilherme Teixeira Crusiol, Rubson Natal Ribeiro Sibaldelli, Alexandre Lima Nepomuceno, Norman Neumaier, José Renato Bouças Farias, Renato Herrig Furlanetto, José Alexandre Melo Demattê and Marcos Rafael Nanni

Plants 2025, 14(17), 2615; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14172615 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 445

Abstract

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) is highly sensitive to water deficit, particularly during the vegetative phase, when morphological and metabolic plasticity support continued growth and photosynthetic efficiency. We applied eleven water regimes, from full irrigation (W100) to total water withholding (W0), to plants grown under controlled conditions. After 14 days, we quantified morphophysiological, biochemical, leaf optical, gas exchange, and chlorophyll a fluorescence traits. Drought induces significant reductions in leaf area, biomass, pigment pools, and photosynthetic rates (A, g_s, ΦPSII) while increasing the levels of oxidative stress markers (electrolyte leakage, ROS) and proline accumulation. OJIP transients and JIP test metrics revealed reduced electron-transport efficiency and increased energy dissipation for many parameters under severe stress. Principal component analysis (PCA) clearly separated those treatments. PC1 captured growth and water status variation, whereas PC2 reflected photoprotective adjustments. These data show that progressive drought limits carbon assimilation via coordinated diffusive and biochemical constraints and that the accumulation of proline, phenolics, and lignin is associated with osmotic adjustment, antioxidant buffering, and cell wall reinforcement under stress. The combined use of hyperspectral sensors, gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, and multivariate analyses for phenotyping offers a rapid, nondestructive diagnostic tool for assessing drought severity and the possibility of selecting drought-resistant genotypes and phenotypes in a changing stress environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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19 pages, 8271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Hydrodynamic Parameters of Different Understory Vegetation Patterns

by Chenhui Zhang, Jiali Wang and Jianbo Jia

Plants 2025, 14(16), 2556; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14162556 - 17 Aug 2025

Viewed by 306

Abstract

The presence of understory vegetation not only influences slope-scale soil and water conservation but also exerts a profound effect on hydrodynamic characteristics and the processes of runoff and sediment production. Therefore, in this study, different vegetation types and vegetation coverages (bare land, 30%, 60%, and 90%) were set up by simulating rainfall (45, 60, 90, and 120 mm·h⁻¹) to evaluate the runoff-sediment process and the response characteristics of hydrodynamic parameters. The results showed that increasing vegetation cover significantly reduced soil erosion on forest slopes (p < 0.05). When the vegetation cover ranged from 60% to 90%, vegetation pattern C and pattern D were the most effective in suppressing erosion, where increased cover improved runoff stability. Under low-cover conditions, overland flow tended toward turbulent and rapid regimes, whereas under high cover conditions, flow was primarily laminar and slow. Patterns C and D significantly reduced flow velocity and water depth (p < 0.05). Structural equation patterning revealed that, under different vegetation patterns, the runoff power (ω), Reynolds number (Re), and resistance coefficient (f) more effectively characterized the erosion process. Among these, the Reynolds number and runoff power were the dominant factors driving erosion on red soil slopes. By contrast, runoff shear stress was significantly reduced under high-cover conditions and showed weak correlation with sediment yield, suggesting that it was unsuitable as an indicator of slope erosion. Segmental vegetation arrangements and increasing vegetation cover near runoff outlets—especially at 60–90% coverage—effectively reduced soil erosion. These findings provide scientific insight into the hydrodynamic mechanisms of vegetation cover on slopes and offer theoretical support for optimizing soil and water conservation strategies on hilly terrain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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17 pages, 3411 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Potassium Fulvic Acid on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties and Soil Microenvironment of Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) Under Salt Stress

by Xuanrong Wu, Dekang Hou, Jing Ma, Yanan Li, Lin Wu, Haiguang Liu, Yi Zuo, Xinxin Guo, Jinying Li and Ying Wang

Plants 2025, 14(11), 1654; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14111654 - 29 May 2025

Viewed by 618

Abstract

These days, one of the main issues preventing agricultural development is salinized soils. Potassium fulvic acid (PFA) not only regulates plant growth, but also improves the soil nutrient content and physical structure, which makes it a soil conditioner worth promoting. Nevertheless, the research conducted thus far on the subject of PFA with regard to plant growth and inter-root microbial communities remains somewhat limited in scope. In this study, a pot experiment was conducted to simulate both the normal environment and salt stress environment. The objective of this experiment was to verify the effect of PFA on the growth of blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) as well as its effect on the soil physical and chemical indices and the soil microbial community structure. The findings demonstrated that the implementation of potassium fulvic acids exhibited a minimal impact on the growth of blueberry plants under standard environmental conditions. However, it was observed to exert a substantial effect on enhancing various physiological parameters, including plant height, root activity, and chlorophyll synthesis, particularly in response to salt stress. PFA led to a substantial augmentation in the soil organic matter content, alongside a notable rise in the alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (AN) and available potassium (AK) content. Concurrently, PFA caused a notable escalation in the activities of soil urease, sucrase, acid phosphatase, and catalase (p < 0.05) in the salt-stressed environment. PFA increased the abundance of Acidobacteria, Myxococcota, Ascomycota, and Fungi_phy_Incertae_sedis under salt stress, which was mainly related to the decrease in electrical conductivity (EC) values and increase in soil acid phosphatase (S-ACP) activity. It is evident that the implementation of PFA is advantageous in enhancing the saline environment, mitigating the impact of salt damage on blueberries and establishing a foundation for the expansion of cultivated areas and the sustainable cultivation of blueberries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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21 pages, 3073 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Combination of Salicylic Acid, Nicotinamide, and Proline Mitigates the Damage Caused by Salt Stress in Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)

by Thainan Sipriano dos Santos, Marcos Roberto Santos Correia, Luma Santos Sena, Laura Pereira dos Santos Santana, Geovanna Buique Gualberto da Silva, Keilane Silva Lima, Elienay Vinícius da Silva Dutra, Myriam El Adas, Maria Carolina Borges de Oliveira Ribeiro, João Everthon da Silva Ribeiro, Rogério Ferreira Ribas, Elania Freire da Silva, Alfredo Emilio Rubio-Casal, Aurélio Paes Barros Júnior, Xuguang Tang, Thieres George Freire da Silva, Alexandre Maniçoba da Rosa Ferraz Jardim and Toshik Iarley da Silva

Plants 2025, 14(8), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14081156 - 8 Apr 2025

Viewed by 999

Abstract

Salinity represents a significant challenge for agriculture, especially in semi-arid regions, affecting the growth and productivity of plants such as nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus), which is valued for its ornamental, medicinal, and food uses. Salt stress disrupts biochemical, physiological, and anatomical processes, limiting plant development. This study investigated the application of attenuators, including salicylic acid, nicotinamide, and proline, to mitigate the effects of salt stress on nasturtium cultivated in a hydroponic system. The treatments involved different combinations of these compounds under saline conditions (40 mM NaCl). The attenuators reduced the negative impacts of salt stress, promoting improvements in gas exchange, such as increased net photosynthesis, water-use efficiency, and stomatal conductance. Additionally, the treatments enhanced vegetative and reproductive growth, increasing the dry biomass of leaves, stems, and flowers, as well as the number of flowers and flower buds. The combination of salicylic acid, nicotinamide, and proline stood out by providing greater efficiency in carbon assimilation, stability of photosynthetic pigments, and higher tolerance to salt stress. These findings reinforce the potential of using attenuators to optimize the cultivation of nasturtium in saline environments, promoting higher productivity and plant quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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22 pages, 3649 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Summer Drought on Post-Drought Resprouting and Leaf Senescence in Prunus spinosa L. Growing in a Common Garden

by Kristine Vander Mijnsbrugge, Stefaan Moreels, Sharon Moreels, Damien Buisset, Karen Vancampenhout and Eduardo Notivol Paino

Plants 2025, 14(7), 1132; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14071132 - 5 Apr 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 727

Abstract

Understanding how woody plants cope with severe water shortages is critical, especially for regions where droughts are becoming more frequent and intense. We studied the effects of drought intensity, focusing on post-drought resprouting, autumn leaf senescence and the subsequent spring bud burst. Furthermore, we aimed to study population differentiation in the drought and post-drought responses. We performed a summer dry-out experiment in a common garden of potted Prunus spinosa L. (Rosaceae) saplings. We analysed responses across different visual stress symptom categories and examined differentiation between provenances from a local origin (Western Europe, Belgium), a lower latitude (Spain) and a higher latitude (Sweden). The chance of post-drought resprouting was greater for the more severely affected plants than for the less severely affected ones, and it occurred earlier. The plants that displayed wilting of the leaves during the drought had a leaf senescence 2.7 days earlier than the controls, whereas that of plants with 25 to 75% and more than 75% of desiccated leaves was 7 and 15 days later, respectively. During the drought, the local provenance was the first to develop visual symptoms compared to the other two provenances. However, among plants that exhibited no or only mild symptoms, this provenance also had a higher likelihood of post-drought resprouting. Among the control plants, the higher-latitude provenance displayed leaf senescence earlier, while the lower-latitude provenance senesced later compared to the local provenance. However, these differences in the timing of leaf senescence among the three provenances disappeared in treated plants with more than 25% of desiccated leaves due to the drought. Whereas leaf senescence could be earlier or later depending on the developed drought symptoms, the timing of bud burst was only delayed. Results indicate that resprouting and timing of leaf senescence are responsive to the severity of the experienced drought in a provenance-dependent way. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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32 pages, 8768 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Salinization and Ancient Hulled Wheat: A Study on Antioxidant Defense Mechanisms

by Ridvan Temizgul

Plants 2025, 14(5), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050678 - 22 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 712

Abstract

Soil salinization, which is second only to soil erosion in terms of soil degradation, significantly hinders crop growth and development, leading to reduced yields. This study investigated the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense mechanisms of four ancient hulled wheat species under salt stress, with and without exogenous glycine betaine (0.5 mM). We aimed to assess the salt tolerance of these species and their potential for cultivation in saline/sodic soils. Our findings indicate that sodium and potassium chloride concentrations exceeding 100 mM induce significant stress in hulled wheat. However, combined salt stress (sodium and potassium chloride) reduced this stress by approximately 20–30%. Furthermore, exogenous glycine betaine supplementation almost completely alleviated the negative effects of salt stress, particularly in Triticum boeoticum. This species exhibited a remarkable ability to restore normal growth functions under these conditions. Our results suggest that ancient hulled wheat, especially T. boeoticum, may be a promising candidate for cultivation in sodium-saline soils. By supplementing with potassium fertilizers in addition to nitrogen, plants can effectively control salt influx into their cells and maintain intracellular K⁺/Na⁺ balance, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of salinity stress. This approach has the potential to increase crop yields and enhance food security in saline environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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17 pages, 6751 KB

Open AccessArticle

Endogenous γ-Aminobutyric Acid Accumulation Enhances Salinity Tolerance in Rice

by Mingjia Chen, Changhua Zhu, Hui Zhang, Siheng Chen, Xi Wang and Lijun Gan

Plants 2024, 13(19), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13192750 - 30 Sep 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1392

Abstract

Rice is an important food crop worldwide but is usually susceptible to saline stress. When grown on soil with excessive salt, rice plants experience osmotic, ionic, and oxidative stresses that adversely affect growth performance. γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a nonproteinogenic amino acid that plays an important role in the metabolic activities of organisms. Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) is the rate-limiting enzyme in GABA metabolism. Here, we genetically modified rice GAD by overexpression or CRISPR-mediated genome editing. These lines, named gad3-ox1 and gad3-ox2 or gad1/3-ko, were used to explore the effects of endogenous GABA accumulation on salt tolerance in rice. Both the gad3-ox1 and gad3-ox2 lines exhibited significant accumulation of the GABA content, whereas the gad1/3-ko line presented a reduced GABA content in vivo. Notably, the two overexpression lines were markedly resistant to salt stress compared with the wild-type and knockout lines. Furthermore, our results demonstrated that endogenous GABA accumulation in the gad3-ox1 and gad3-ox2 lines increased the contents of antioxidant substances and osmotic regulators, decreased the content of membrane lipid peroxidation products and the Na⁺ content, and resulted in strong tolerance to salt stress. Together, these data provide a theoretical basis for cultivating rice varieties with strong salt tolerance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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