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Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators
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Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators

A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Ecology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 9880

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Stefano Benvenuti

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
Interests: biodiversity; climate change; plant physiology; plant biology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The ecological aspects of plants–pollinators interaction have become increasingly crucial in biodiversity conservation. Indeed, the biological complexity and resilience of natural and anthropized ecosystems, subjected to increasing climate change, represent some of the most important ecological challenges of the new millennium. While the protection of flora and fauna in natural ecosystems can be allowed by the creation of natural parks, it is necessary to evolve eco-compatible management in the agroecosystem that limits the feedback rarefaction of both plants and their pollinators.

The fascinating mutualism between flora and pollinators is much studied, but many aspects remain explored in terms of the chemical (scents and nectar composition) and physical (shapes and colors of the corollas) strategies of both: i) selective attraction and ii) the repulsion of unwanted insects.

The risk of the rarefaction and/or extinction of both plants and pollinators is not random but depends on the degree of mutual specialization. Examining these interactions in greater detail (generalist or specialized) will make it possible to plan land management strategies that aim to enhance the survival of the most threatened species. All agronomic strategies capable of promoting both the level of biodiversity (wildflowers–pollinators) and the related aesthetic impact should also be addressed. It is also important to investigate whether and to what extent common, predominantly autogamous or anemogamous weeds can constitute an occasional source of pollen and/or nectar in the absence of typical entomogamous species. It is also important to verify the eventual gene-flow mediated by poorly or non-specialized insects commonly referred to as nectar–pollen predators.

In summary, this Special Issue aims to compile the skills of agronomists, botanists, entomologists, chemists and ecologists in order to provide basic and applied knowledge that can inspire biodiversity conservation strategies.

Original research articles and reviews are welcome. The scope of this Special Issue includes, but is not limited to, the following topics:

(I) Plant-pollinator interaction and co-evolution;

(II) Agronomic strategies to enable the conservation of biodiversity;

(III) Pollination efficiency of generalist and specialized pollinators;

(IV) Ecosystem services provided by plant-pollinator mutualism;

(V) Aesthetic sustainability of wildflower landscapes.

Dr. Stefano Benvenuti
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Plants is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • insect pollination
  • pollinator ecosystem service
  • biodiversity conservation of threatened plants
  • plant–pollinator mutualism when subjected to climate change
  • co-evolution of specialized plant–pollinator interactions
  • wildflower landscape sustainability

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 3185 KB  
Article
Sown Summer-Blooming Wildflowers as a Tool to Support Pollinator Biodiversity During Dry Periods in Mediterranean Agroecosystems
by Stefano Benvenuti
Plants 2026, 15(6), 887; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15060887 - 12 Mar 2026
Viewed by 431
Abstract
Summer abiotic stresses typical of Mediterranean agro-environments, now exacerbated by climate change, reduce floral resource availability and further compromise the survival of pollinators already threatened in the so-called Anthropocene. The aim of this study was to evaluate several summer-blooming wildflower species, collected from [...] Read more.
Summer abiotic stresses typical of Mediterranean agro-environments, now exacerbated by climate change, reduce floral resource availability and further compromise the survival of pollinators already threatened in the so-called Anthropocene. The aim of this study was to evaluate several summer-blooming wildflower species, collected from ecologically disturbed and diversified habitats, in order to assess their ecological role in attracting pollinators within agroecosystems. The primary dormancy typical of wild species seeds was partially overcome through appropriate pre-sowing seed treatments, while secondary dormancy was reduced by soil rolling after sowing. Soil rolling proved particularly beneficial for species with very small seeds, highlighting the importance of adequate seed–soil contact for successful establishment. All tested species exhibited summer flowering between May and July, with some flowering later in the season, and showed high attractiveness to pollinators both in terms of abundance and taxonomic diversity. However, this ecosystem service declined significantly in the second year, although certain species demonstrated a strong capacity to persist and to maintain satisfactory pollinator attractiveness over time. In conclusion, while the experiment revealed several critical aspects, it also provides encouraging prospects for further research aimed at enhancing pollinator survival in agroecosystems that are severely threatened by pollinator decline. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators)
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28 pages, 6853 KB  
Article
Colors for Resources: Reward-Linked Visual Displays in Orchids
by Gabriel Coimbra, Carlos E. Pereira Nunes, Pedro J. Bergamo, João M. R. B. V. Aguiar and Leandro Freitas
Plants 2026, 15(1), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010154 - 4 Jan 2026
Viewed by 922
Abstract
Pollination syndromes reflect the convergence of floral traits among plants sharing the same pollinator guild. However, bee-pollinated orchids exhibit striking variation in color and size. This diversity reflects the multiple reward strategies that evolved within the family, each interacting differently with bee sensory [...] Read more.
Pollination syndromes reflect the convergence of floral traits among plants sharing the same pollinator guild. However, bee-pollinated orchids exhibit striking variation in color and size. This diversity reflects the multiple reward strategies that evolved within the family, each interacting differently with bee sensory biases. Here, we tested whether the complex floral visual displays of orchids differ in signal identity and intensity among reward systems. We also considered intrafloral modularity, measured as the color differentiation among flower parts, and color–size integration. For this, we measured and modeled floral morphometric and reflectance data from sepals, petals, lip tips, and lip bases under bee vision from 95 tropical Epidendroid species to compare chromatic and achromatic contrasts, spectral purity, and mean reflectance across wavebands, plus flower and display size, among reward systems. Reward types included 19 food-deceptive, 8 nectar-offering, 10 oil-offering, 11 fragrance-offering, and 47 orchid species of unknown reward strategy. Principal component analyses on 34 color and 9 size variables summarized major gradients of visual trait variation: first component (19.1%) represented overall green-red reflectance and achromatic contrasts, whereas the second (16.5%) captured chromatic contrast–size covariation. Reward systems differed mostly in signal identity rather than signal intensity. Flower chromatic contrasts presented strong integration with flower size, while achromatic contrasts were negatively associated with display size. While deceptive and nectar-offering orchids tend toward larger solitary flowers with bluer and spectrally purer displays, oil- and fragrance-offering orchids tend toward smaller, brownish, or yellow to green flowers, with larger inflorescences. Rewardless orchids presented more achromatically conspicuous signals than rewarding orchids, but smaller displays. Orchid species clustered by reward both in PCA spaces and in bee hexagon color space. Deceptive orchids were typically associated with UV + White colors, oil orchids with UV + Yellow lip tips, and fragrance orchids with UV-Black lip bases and UV-Green lip tips. Together, these results indicate that orchid reward systems promote qualitative rather than quantitative differentiation in visual signals, integrating display color and size. These long-evolved distinct signals potentially enable foraging bees to discriminate among resource types within the community floral market. Our results demonstrate that color and flower display size are important predictors of reward strategy, likely used by foraging bees for phenotype-reward associations, thus mediating the evolution of floral signals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators)
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13 pages, 1331 KB  
Article
Distance Matters: Assessing the Influence of Spatial Separation on Reproductive Success of Costus spiralis (Costaceae) in a Vereda Palm Swamp
by Jessyca Santana Santos, Rafaela Cabral Marinho, Clesnan Mendes-Rodrigues, Monize Altomare and Paulo Eugênio Oliveira
Plants 2025, 14(21), 3266; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213266 - 26 Oct 2025
Viewed by 830
Abstract
Many plant species depend on pollen flow to maximize reproduction and maintain genetic variability. Pollinators mediate this process, but distance between individuals can influence its benefits. Proximity may cause inbreeding depression, while extreme distances can mix locally adapted genotypes, leading to outbreeding depression [...] Read more.
Many plant species depend on pollen flow to maximize reproduction and maintain genetic variability. Pollinators mediate this process, but distance between individuals can influence its benefits. Proximity may cause inbreeding depression, while extreme distances can mix locally adapted genotypes, leading to outbreeding depression and reduced fitness. Vereda palm swamps, shaped by the water table, are important habitats in the Cerrado, but they face anthropogenic changes that can affect reproduction, pollinators, and genetic diversity. This study examined how pollen dispersal distance influences the reproductive success of spiral ginger (Costus spiralis, Costaceae), a vereda self-compatible rhizomatous herb pollinated by hummingbirds. Hand pollinations were carried out between plants ranging from 10 to 2000 m distant, and the resulting fruit-set and seed quality traits were evaluated. Fruit set did not vary significantly with distance, with no hint of either inbreeding or outbreeding depression. Nevertheless, seeds resulting from shorter pollination distance (10 m) were heavier, while germination rates were up to five-fold higher at greater pollination distances than at shorter pollination distances. These distinct seed traits are possibly related to main hummingbird pollinators of C. spiralis, which show distinct foraging strategies. The results suggest that C. spiralis is adapted to various modes of pollen dispersal, ensuring reproduction via either territorial or traplining hummingbirds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators)
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20 pages, 2418 KB  
Article
Mutualism and Dispersal Heterogeneity Shape Stability, Biodiversity, and Structure of Theoretical Plant–Pollinator Meta-Networks
by Chinenye Assumpta Onyeagoziri, Henintsoa Onivola Minoarivelo and Cang Hui
Plants 2025, 14(14), 2127; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14142127 - 10 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1249
Abstract
Mutualistic interactions are crucial to the structure and functioning of ecological communities, playing a vital role in maintaining biodiversity amidst environmental perturbations. In studies of meta-networks, which are groups of local networks connected by dispersal, most research has focused on the effect of [...] Read more.
Mutualistic interactions are crucial to the structure and functioning of ecological communities, playing a vital role in maintaining biodiversity amidst environmental perturbations. In studies of meta-networks, which are groups of local networks connected by dispersal, most research has focused on the effect of dispersal on interaction networks of competition and predation, without much attention given to mutualistic interactions. Consequently, the role of different dispersal rates (between local networks and across species) in stability and network structures is not well understood. We present a competition–mutualism model for meta-networks where mutualistic interactions follow a type II functional response, to investigate stability and species abundance dynamics under varying dispersal scenarios. We specifically assess the impact of mutualism and dispersal heterogeneity, both between local networks and across species, on the structure and stability of meta-networks. We find that mutualistic meta-networks exhibit greater stability, higher total abundance, lower species unevenness, and greater nestedness compared to meta-networks with only competition interactions. Although dispersal heterogeneity across species exerts some influence, dispersal heterogeneity between local networks mainly drives the patterns observed: it reduces total abundance, increases unevenness, and diminishes compositional similarity across the meta-network. These results highlight the pivotal role of both mutualism and spatial dispersal structure in shaping ecological networks. Our work advances understanding of how mutualistic interactions and dispersal dynamics interact to influence biodiversity and stability in complex ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators)
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21 pages, 2319 KB  
Article
Drought and High Temperatures Impact the Plant–Pollinator Interactions in Fagopyrum esculentum
by Corentin Defalque, Joy Laeremans, Jonathan Drugmand, Chanceline Fopessi Tcheutchoua, Yu Meng, Meiliang Zhou, Kaixuan Zhang and Muriel Quinet
Plants 2025, 14(1), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14010131 - 4 Jan 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2988
Abstract
As a result of climate change, temperate regions are facing the simultaneous increase in water and heat stress. These changes may affect the interactions between plants and pollinators, which will have an impact on entomophilous crop yields. Here, we investigated the consequences of [...] Read more.
As a result of climate change, temperate regions are facing the simultaneous increase in water and heat stress. These changes may affect the interactions between plants and pollinators, which will have an impact on entomophilous crop yields. Here, we investigated the consequences of high temperatures and water stress on plant growth, floral biology, flower-reward production, and insect visitation of five varieties of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), an entomophilous crop of growing interest for sustainable agriculture. The plants were grown under two temperature regimes (21 °C/19 °C and 28 °C/26 °C, day/night) and two watering regimes (well-watered and water-stressed). Our results showed that the reproductive growth was more affected by drought and high temperatures than was the vegetative growth, and that combined stress had more detrimental effects. However, the impact of drought and high temperatures was variety-dependent. Drought and/or high temperatures reduced the number of open flowers per plant, as well as the floral resources (nectar and pollen), resulting in a decrease in pollinator visits, mainly under combined stress. Although the proportion of Hymenoptera visiting the flowers decreased with high temperatures, the proportion of Diptera remained stable. The insect visiting behavior was not strongly affected by drought and high temperatures. In conclusion, the modification of floral display and floral resources induced by abiotic stresses related to climate change alters plant–pollinator interactions in common buckwheat. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators)
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Review

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22 pages, 3233 KB  
Review
Palms (Arecaceae) and Meligethinae (Coleoptera, Nitidulidae): A Long Evolutionary Journey
by Meike Liu, Jinting Che, Simone Sabatelli, Pietro Gardini, Simone Fattorini, Andrzej Lasoń, Josef Jelínek and Paolo Audisio
Plants 2025, 14(16), 2487; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14162487 - 11 Aug 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2443
Abstract
Arecaceae (palms) constitute a highly diversified family of monocots, distributed especially in tropical and subtropical areas, including approximately 2600 species and 180 genera. Palms originated by the end of the Early Cretaceous, with most genus-level cladogenetic events occurring from the Eocene and Oligocene [...] Read more.
Arecaceae (palms) constitute a highly diversified family of monocots, distributed especially in tropical and subtropical areas, including approximately 2600 species and 180 genera. Palms originated by the end of the Early Cretaceous, with most genus-level cladogenetic events occurring from the Eocene and Oligocene onward. Meligethinae (pollen beetles) are a large subfamily of Nitidulidae (Coleoptera), including just under 700 described species, and some 50 genera. Meligethinae are widespread in the Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Oriental Regions. All meligethine species are associated with flowers or inflorescences of several plant families, both dicots (the great majority) and monocots (around 7%); approximately 80% of known species are thought to be monophagous or strictly oligophagous at the larval stage. The origin of Meligethinae is debated, although combined paleontological, paleogeographical, and molecular evidence suggests placing it somewhere in the Paleotropics around the Eocene–Oligocene boundary, ca. 35–40 Mya. This article reviews the insect–host plant relationships of all known genera and species of Meligethinae associated with Arecaceae, currently including some 40 species and just under ten genera (including a possibly new African one). The role of adults as effective and important pollinators of their host palms (also in terms of provided ecosystem services) has been demonstrated in some common palm species. All Meligethinae living on palms show rather close phylogenetic relationships with one another and with the mainly Eastern Palearctic genus Meligethes Stephens, 1830 and related genera (associated with dicots of the families Rosaceae, Brassicaceae, or Cleomaceae). Molecular data suggests that the palm-associated Paleotropical genus Meligethinus Grouvelle, 1906 constitutes the sister-group of Meligethes and allied genera. Some hypotheses are presented on the evolution of Meligethinae associated with palms and their probably rather recent (early Miocene–Pleistocene) radiation on their host plants. Meligethinae likely radiated on palms long after the diversification of their hosts, and their recent evolution was driven by repeated radiation on pre-existing and diverse palm taxa, rather than ancient host associations and coevolution. Finally, this article also briefly summarized the relationships that other unrelated groups of Nitidulidae have established with palms around the world. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators)
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