The Three-Decade Journey of Quantum Cascade Lasers

A special issue of Photonics (ISSN 2304-6732). This special issue belongs to the section "Quantum Photonics and Technologies".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 3941

Special Issue Editors


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Center for Quantum Devices, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-312, USA
Interests: optoelectronics; design; modeling; growth; characterization (optical, electrical, and structural); fabrication; packaging, and measurements of quantum devices; semiconductor lasers; photodetectors; focal plane arrays; QWIP, QDWIP, from deep UV (200 nm), up to THZ (300 microns)
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Guest Editor
Eastern Institute of Technology(EIT), Ningbo 315200, China
Interests: molecular beam epitaxy, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition; nonequilibrium green’s function; semiconductor lasers; device fabrications; terahertz

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Guest Editor
Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
Interests: quantum photonic devices; nonlinear optics; terahertz lasers; frequency combs; electroabsorption-modulated lasers; single photon sources
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Guest Editor
Research Center for Advanced Photonics, RIKEN, Sendai 980-0845, Japan
Interests: terahertz; quantum cascade lasers; inter-subband transition; nitride semiconductors lasers; molecular-beam epitaxy

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to invite you to join us in celebrating the remarkable progress made over nearly 30 years in the field of Quantum Cascade Lasers (QCLs), specifically covering the mid- and far-infrared (mid-IR; terahertz) spectra. The widespread implementation of QCLs in real-world applications, such as environmental sensing, process control, and combustion diagnostics, underscores their significant impact.

This Special Issue aims to present the milestones achieved and the latest hot topics related to QCL research. Given the primary focus of Photonics on devices, it is fitting to compile these advancements here.

In this Special Issue, original research articles, reviews, and comments are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following topics: the physics of the intersubband transition, quantum transport simulations in QCLs, state-of-the-art mid-IR and THz QCL experiments, frequency noise and stabilization of QCLs, surface-emitting photonics configurations, frequency combs, multifrequency generation techniques for THz QCLs, and an extensive illustration of the various applications of QCLs.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Manijeh Razeghi
Dr. Li Wang
Dr. Quanyong Lu
Prof. Dr. Hideki Hirayama
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • intersubband transition
  • quantum transport models
  • quantum cascade lasers
  • mid-infrared/terahertz
  • nonlinearities
  • frequency comb
  • spectroscopy

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 2976 KiB  
Article
Continuous-Wave Room-Temperature External Cavity Quantum Cascade Lasers Operating at λ~8.5 μm
by Zixian Wang, Yuzhe Lin, Yuan Ma, Chenyang Wan, Fengxin Dong, Xuyan Zhou, Jinchuan Zhang, Fengqi Liu and Wanhua Zheng
Photonics 2025, 12(2), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12020129 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 450
Abstract
External cavity quantum cascade lasers (EC-QCLs) utilizing the Littrow configuration and operating at an approximate wavelength of 8.5 μm have been successfully demonstrated in continuous wave operations at room temperature. Our work provides ideas and experimental support for the optimization of the EC-QCL [...] Read more.
External cavity quantum cascade lasers (EC-QCLs) utilizing the Littrow configuration and operating at an approximate wavelength of 8.5 μm have been successfully demonstrated in continuous wave operations at room temperature. Our work provides ideas and experimental support for the optimization of the EC-QCL which indicate optimal EC-QCL performance with an external cavity length of 25 cm and investigates the impact of various parameters, including injection current and temperature on the performance of the EC-QCL. In the absence of anti-reflection (AR) coating, the tuning range at 25 °C extends up to 103.3 cm−1, while the maximum side mode suppression ratio (SMSR) reaches 30.8 dB, accompanied by a full width half maximum linewidth (FWHM) of 0.76 nm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Three-Decade Journey of Quantum Cascade Lasers)
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17 pages, 4133 KiB  
Article
MOCVD Grown InGaAs/InAlAs Quantum Cascade Lasers Emitting at 7.7 μm
by Maciej Bugajski, Andrzej Kolek, Grzegorz Hałdaś, Włodzimierz Strupiński, Iwona Pasternak, Walery Kołkowski and Kamil Pierściński
Photonics 2024, 11(12), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11121195 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 731
Abstract
In this paper, we report the growth of high-quality In0.59Ga0.41As/In0.37Al0.63As strain-balanced quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) in the low-pressure MOCVD production type multi-wafer planetary reactor addressing, in particular, quality and scaled manufacturing issues. Special [...] Read more.
In this paper, we report the growth of high-quality In0.59Ga0.41As/In0.37Al0.63As strain-balanced quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) in the low-pressure MOCVD production type multi-wafer planetary reactor addressing, in particular, quality and scaled manufacturing issues. Special attention was given to achieving the sharp interfaces (IFs), by optimizing the growth interruptions time and time of exposure of InAlAs layer to oxygen contamination in the reactor, which all result in extremely narrow IFs width, below 0.5 nm. The lasers were designed for emission at 7.7µm. The active region was based on diagonal two-phonon resonance design with 40 cascade stages. For epitaxial process control, the High Resolution X-Ray Diffraction (HR XRD) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) were used to characterize the structural quality of the QCL samples. The grown structures were processed into mesa Fabry-Perot lasers using dry etching RIE ICP processing technology. The basic electro-optical characterization of the lasers is provided. We also present results of Green’s function modeling of QCLs and demonstrate the capability of non-equilibrium Green’s function (NEGF) approach for sophisticated, but still computationally effective simulation of laser’s characteristics. The sharpness of the grown IFs was confirmed by direct measurements of their chemical profiles and as well as the agreement between experimental and calculated wavelength obtained for the bandstructure with ideally abrupt (non-graded) IFs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Three-Decade Journey of Quantum Cascade Lasers)
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Review

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14 pages, 1621 KiB  
Review
Interband Cascade Lasers from a Historic Perspective to a Future Outlook
by Rui Q. Yang and Michael B. Santos
Photonics 2025, 12(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12020155 - 13 Feb 2025
Viewed by 359
Abstract
Efficient, reliable, and low-cost mid-infrared interband cascade lasers (ICLs) are needed to meet the growing demands of many useful applications such as chemical sensing, environmental and greenhouse gas monitoring, detection of pipe leaks and explosives, food safety, medical diagnostics, and industrial process control. [...] Read more.
Efficient, reliable, and low-cost mid-infrared interband cascade lasers (ICLs) are needed to meet the growing demands of many useful applications such as chemical sensing, environmental and greenhouse gas monitoring, detection of pipe leaks and explosives, food safety, medical diagnostics, and industrial process control. We review the developments and status of ICLs from a historic perspective, discuss the lessons learnt from experience, and suggest considerations for future research and development. This review endeavors to include the most representative aspects and activities of ICLs, but cannot possibly describe every contribution in the 30 years since the initiation of ICLs. We present an overall picture of the ICL architecture and connect the fundamental principle and underlying physics to future activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Three-Decade Journey of Quantum Cascade Lasers)
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14 pages, 3383 KiB  
Review
Room Temperature Terahertz and Frequency Combs Based on Intersubband Quantum Cascade Laser Diodes: History and Future
by Manijeh Razeghi and Quanyong Lu
Photonics 2025, 12(1), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12010079 - 17 Jan 2025
Viewed by 650
Abstract
The year 2024 marks the 30-year anniversary of the quantum cascade laser (QCL), which is becoming the leading laser source in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) range. Since the first demonstration, QCL has undergone tremendous development in terms of the output power, wall plug efficiency, [...] Read more.
The year 2024 marks the 30-year anniversary of the quantum cascade laser (QCL), which is becoming the leading laser source in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) range. Since the first demonstration, QCL has undergone tremendous development in terms of the output power, wall plug efficiency, spectral coverage, wavelength tunability, and beam quality. Owing to its unique intersubband transition and fast gain features, QCL possesses strong nonlinearities that makes it an ideal platform for nonlinear photonics like terahertz (THz) difference frequency generation and direct frequency comb generation via four-wave mixing when group velocity dispersion is engineered. The feature of broadband, high-power, and low-phase noise of QCL combs is revolutionizing mid-IR spectroscopy and sensing by offering a new tool measuring multi-channel molecules simultaneously in the μs time scale. While THz QCL difference frequency generation is becoming the only semiconductor light source covering 1–5 THz at room temperature. In this paper, we will introduce the latest research from the Center for Quantum Devices at Northwestern University and briefly discuss the history of QCL, recent progress, and future perspective of QCL research, especially for QCL frequency combs, room temperature THz QCL difference frequency generation, and major challenges facing QCL in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Three-Decade Journey of Quantum Cascade Lasers)
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13 pages, 6110 KiB  
Review
Design and Characteristics of Photonic Crystal Resonators for Surface-Emitting Quantum Cascade Lasers
by Kazuaki Sakoda, Yuanzhao Yao, Naoki Ikeda, Yoshimasa Sugimoto, Takaaki Mano, Takashi Kuroda, Hirotaka Tanimura, Shigeyuki Takagi, Rei Hashimoto, Kei Kaneko, Tsutomu Kakuno, Shinji Ohkuma, Ryuichi Togawa, Tetsuya Miyagawa, Hiroshi Ohno and Shinji Saito
Photonics 2024, 11(11), 1024; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11111024 - 30 Oct 2024
Viewed by 795
Abstract
We present our recent development of the surface-emitting quantum cascade laser with a PC (photonic crystal) resonator and a strain-compensated MQW (multiple quantum well) active layer operating at around 4.3 μm. We describe the laser performance mainly from the viewpoint of the design [...] Read more.
We present our recent development of the surface-emitting quantum cascade laser with a PC (photonic crystal) resonator and a strain-compensated MQW (multiple quantum well) active layer operating at around 4.3 μm. We describe the laser performance mainly from the viewpoint of the design and analysis of the PC resonators, which include both numerical calculations by FEM (finite element method) and analytical calculations using the k·p perturbation theory and group theory. We analyze the resonance quality factor, overlap factor, extraction efficiency, and far-field pattern, and show how the output power and beam quality have been improved by the appropriate design of the PC resonator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Three-Decade Journey of Quantum Cascade Lasers)
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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: Membrane-mediated Conversion of Near-Infrared Amplitude Modulation into the Self-Mixing Signal of a Terahertz Quantum Cascade Laser
Authors: Paolo Vezio; Andrea Ottomaniello; Leonardo Vicarelli; Mohammed Salih; Lianhe Li; Edmund Linfield; Paul Dean; Virgilio Mattoli; Alessandro Pitanti; Alessandro Tredicucci
Affiliation: Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Firenze, via Sansone 1, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy
Abstract: A platform for converting near-infrared (NIR) laser power modulation into the self-mixing (SM) signal of a quantum cascade laser (QCL) operating at terahertz (THz) frequencies is introduced. This approach is based on laser-feedback interferometry (LFI) with a THz QCL using a gold-coated silicon nitride trampoline membrane resonator as both the external QCL laser cavity and the mechanical coupling element of the two-laser hybrid system. We show that the membrane response can be controlled with high precision and stability both in its dynamic (i.e. piezo-electrically actuated) and static state via the photo-thermally induced NIR laser excitation. The responsivity to nanometric external cavity variation and robustness to optical feedback of the QCL LFI apparatus then allows a highly sensitive and reliable transfer of the NIR power modulation into the QCL SM voltage, with a bandwidth limited by the thermal response time of the membrane resonator. Interestingly, a dual information conversion is possible thanks to the accurate thermal tuning of the membrane resonance frequency shift and displacement. Overall, the proposed apparatus can be exploited for the precise opto-mechanical control of QCLs operation with advanced application in LFI imaging and spectroscopy, and in coherent optical communication.

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