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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2020) | Viewed by 58566

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Roland Franz

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Guest Editor

Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Department Product Safety and Analytics, Freising, Germany
Interests: food contact materials: migration testing and modelling – compliance – safety – consumer exposure; food packaging polymers – oligomers - polymer additives – nanocomposites – contaminants – non-intentionally added substances (NIAS); functional barriers for organic molecules: permeation testing and prediction; microplastics

Dr. Frank Welle

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Department Product Safety and Analytics, Freising, Germany
Interests: food contact materials: migration testing; permeation testing and diffusion and modelling; diffusion of substances in polymers; non-intentionally added substances (NIAS); functional barrier testing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Food packaging uses a large variety of materials and components and comprises many packaging types, articles and applications. We are talking about films, wraps, bottles, pouches, cans, cups, closures, lids, labels, paper and board-based articles, coatings, laquers, print and others. In many cases these materials and items are intended for direct contact with foodstuffs. On the other hand, as in the case of multi-layer structures and secondary packaging, food is not in direct contact with the packaging. Besides longstanding conventional food packaging applications, innovations have entered (and still continuously do) the market: active and informative packaging, smart and intelligent approaches, as well as nano-enabled functional packaging solutions.
What all these packaging or food contact scenarios have in common is the following:

- They have to comply with the EU Framework Regulation (EC) No. 1935/2004 (or other analogous regulations in other countries and domains) and in particular with Article 3, which essentially requires that substances do not migrate into foods at unacceptable levels posing a potential health risk to the consumer.

- In all cases, molecules are involved. They are either intentionally used, added or generated to manufacture food contact materials or show up non-intentionally in the food contact material (FCM) due to chemical reactions or as impurity residues.

It is clear that all migrants are molecules but, on the other hand, it is also true that all molecules present in FCMs are not necessarily migrants. The question of whether or not a molecule will become a migrant and transfer into foods depends on its physical–chemical characteristics, the material type and structure of the used FCM, the time–temperature conditions applied during packaging manufacture and thereafter during food contact until end of shelf-life. Further aspects such as: (i) migration processes for single use versus repeat use applications; (ii) clearly defined FCM surface-to-food volume ratios versus undefined ratios as in the case of kitchen utensils; (iii) direct contact versus indirect contact including printing ink set-off; and (iv) others, are further complicating factors.
As a result of modern requirements driven by circular economy policies, bio-based and biodegradable packaging materials may require specific considerations to fulfil the abovementioned Article 3 of the EU Framework Regulation. In this context, the recycling of FCM into new food contact applications deserves increased attention going beyond the already achieved level of the well-established PET bottle-to-bottle recycling.
The objective of this Special Issue is to compile the latest works and progress concerning the migration of molecules from food contact materials in light of the aspects mentioned above and in an effort to highlight and discuss the underlying analytical and physico-chemical achievements. Approaches to predictive migration evaluation as well as the toxicological profiling of migrating molecules and risk assessment represent additional essential scientific aspects and are highly welcome as complementary studies towards the safety-in-use of food packaging materials.

Dr. Roland Franz
Dr. Frank Welle
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Food contact materials
Polymer additives
Food packaging safety
Compliance
Migration testing and prediction
Diffusion modelling
Chemical analysis
Consumer exposure
Risk assessment

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 2128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Migration Modeling as a Valuable Tool for Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization of Polyethylene Terephthalate Oligomers

by Verena N. Schreier, Alex Odermatt and Frank Welle

Molecules 2023, 28(1), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010173 - 25 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1848

Abstract

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is one of the most widely used food contact materials due to its excellent mechanical properties and recyclability. Migration of substances from PET and assessment of compliance are usually determined by experimental testing, which can be challenging depending on the migrants of interest. Low concentrations and missing reference standards, among other factors, have led to inadequate investigation of the migration potential of PET oligomers. Migration modeling can overcome such limitations and is therefore a suitable starting point for exposure and risk assessment. In this study, the activation energy-based (E_A) model and the A_P model were used to systematically evaluate the migration potential of 52 PET oligomers for 12 different application scenarios. Modeling parameters and conditions were evaluated to investigate their impact and relevance on the assessment of realistic exposures. Obtained results were compared with safety thresholds known from the concept of toxicological thresholds of concern. This allowed the evaluation and identification of oligomers and/or applications where migration or exposure levels may be associated with a potential risk because they exceed these safety thresholds. Overall, this study demonstrated that migration modeling can be a high-throughput, fast, flexible, and suitable approach for comprehensive exposure assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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18 pages, 4782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Characterization of Novel Composite Films Based on Soy Protein Isolate and Oilseed Flours

by Magdalena Mikus, Sabina Galus, Agnieszka Ciurzyńska and Monika Janowicz

Molecules 2021, 26(12), 3738; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26123738 - 19 Jun 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 2561

Abstract

The possibility of using oilseed flours as a waste source for film-forming materials with a combination of soy protein isolate in preparation of edible films was evaluated. Physical, mechanical and barrier properties were determined as a function of the oilseed type: hemp, evening primrose, flax, pumpkin, sesame and sunflower. It was observed that the addition of oilseed flours increased the refraction and thus the opacity of the obtained films from 1.27 to 9.57 A mm⁻¹. Depending on the type of flours used, the edible films took on various colors. Lightness (L*) was lowest for the evening primrose film (L* = 34.91) and highest for the soy protein film (L* = 91.84). Parameter a* was lowest for the sunflower film (a* = −5.13) and highest for the flax film (a* = 13.62). Edible films made of pumpkin seed flour had the highest value of the b* color parameter (b* = 34.40), while films made of evening primrose flour had the lowest value (b* = 1.35). All analyzed films had relatively low mechanical resistance, with tensile strength from 0.60 to 3.09 MPa. Films made of flour containing the highest amount of protein, pumpkin and sesame, had the highest water vapor permeability, 2.41 and 2.70 × 10⁻⁹ g·m⁻¹ s⁻¹ Pa⁻¹, respectively. All the edible films obtained had high water swelling values from 131.10 to 362.16%, and the microstructure of the films changed after adding the flour, from homogeneous and smooth to rough. All blended soy protein isolate–oilseed flour films showed lower thermal stability which was better observed at the first and second stages of thermogravimetric analysis when degradation occurred at lower temperatures. The oilseed flours blended with soy protein isolate show the possibility of using them in the development of biodegradable films which can find practical application in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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18 pages, 2755 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Characterisation of Elastomers as Food Contact Materials–Part 1: Quantification of Extractable Compounds, Swelling of Elastomers in Food Simulants and Release of Elements

by Friederike Kühne, Maurus Biedermann, Angela Eicher, Florian Felder, Stefan Sander, Roman Schmidt, Saskia Lehmann, Gregor McCombie, Stefan Merkel, Oliver Kappenstein and Andreas Luch

Molecules 2021, 26(2), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26020509 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3985

Abstract

Elastomers are not a uniform class of materials but comprise a broad spectrum of chemically different polymers. Sealing gaskets, gloves, teats, conveyor belts and tubing are examples of elastomers being used as food contact materials (FCMs). Ten elastomer samples were evaluated with respect to the content of extractable compounds, migration of substances into ethanolic food simulants, swelling in food simulants and release of elements in different food simulants. The number of extractable substances <1000 Da was determined by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with flame ionisation detection (GC × GC–FID) analysis of tetrahydrofuran (THF) extracts. The number of signals ranged from 61 (a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE)) to 690 (a natural rubber/styrene-butadiene-rubber blend (NR/SBR)). As for risk assessment, the decisive factor is which substances reach the food. The extent of substances that migrate into ethanolic food simulants was investigated. Elastomer FCMs can be the source of food contamination with heavy metals. Notably, contamination with lead was detected in some samples investigated in this study. It was shown that food simulants harbour the potential to morphologically alter or even disintegrate elastomeric materials. The results presented here highlight the importance to carefully choose the elastomer type for the intended use as FCMs as not every application may prove safe for consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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20 pages, 649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contamination Levels in Recollected PET Bottles from Non-Food Applications and their Impact on the Safety of Recycled PET for Food Contact

by Roland Franz and Frank Welle

Molecules 2020, 25(21), 4998; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25214998 - 28 Oct 2020

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 8979

Abstract

PET beverage bottles have been recycled and safely reprocessed into new food contact packaging applications for over two decades. During recollection of post-consumer PET beverage bottles, PET containers from non-food products are inevitably co-collected and thereby enter the PET recycling feed stream. To explore the impact of this mixing on the safety-in-use of recycled PET (rPET) bottles, we determined the concentrations of post-consumer substances in PET containers used for a range of non-food product applications taken from the market. Based on the chemical nature and amounts of these post-consumer substances, we evaluated their potential carry-over into beverages filled in rPET bottles starting from different fractions of non-food PET in the recollection systems and taking worst-case cleaning efficiencies of super-clean recycling processes into account. On the basis of the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) concept and Cramer classification tools, we present a risk assessment for potential exposure of the consumer to the identified contaminants as well as unidentified, potentially genotoxic substances in beverages. As a result, a fraction of 5% non-food PET in the recycling feed stream, which is very likely to occur in the usual recollection systems, does not pose any risk to the consumer. Our data show that fractions of up to 20%, which may sporadically be contained in certain, local recollection systems, would also not raise a safety concern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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18 pages, 4757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Release of Melamine and Formaldehyde from Melamine-Formaldehyde Plastic Kitchenware

by Ingo Ebner, Steffi Haberer, Stefan Sander, Oliver Kappenstein, Andreas Luch and Torsten Bruhn

Molecules 2020, 25(16), 3629; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163629 - 10 Aug 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6639

Abstract

The release of melamine and formaldehyde from kitchenware made of melamine resins is still a matter of great concern. To investigate the migration and release behavior of the monomers from melamine-based food contact materials into food simulants and food stuffs, cooking spoons were tested under so-called hot plate conditions at 100 °C. Release conditions using the real hot plate conditions with 3% acetic acid were compared with conditions in a conventional migration oven and with a release to deionized water. Furthermore, the kinetics of the release were studied using Arrhenius plots giving an activation energy for the release of melamine of 120 kJ/mol. Finally, a correlation between quality of the resins, specifically the kind of bridges between the monomers, and the release of melamine, was confirmed by CP/MAS ¹³C-NMR measurements of the melamine kitchenware. Obviously, the ratio of methylene bridges and dimethylene ether bridges connecting the melamine monomers during the curing process can be directly correlated with the amount of the monomers released into food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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12 pages, 1411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Functional Barrier Properties of Chitosan Acetate Films with Conventionally Applied Polymers

by Andrea Walzl, Samir Kopacic, Wolfgang Bauer and Erich Leitner

Molecules 2020, 25(15), 3491; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25153491 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2648

Abstract

The current demand to cut back on the use of plastic materials has brought a major boost to the search for bio-based alternatives. Not only are plastic bags and primary food packaging under scrutiny here, but also those materials used as functional barriers to reduce, for example, the migration of mineral oil hydrocarbons (MOH) from recycled paper and board packaging. Most of the barriers now in use are synthetic, often have only moderate barrier functionalities and in addition reduce the environmentally-friendly character of cellulose-based materials. Against this background, bio-based polymers have been evaluated in terms of their functional barrier properties. Chitosan was found to be among the best performers in these materials. In this study, the behavior of a lab-made chitosan acetate film was compared with conventionally produced polymer films. The two-sided migration experiment described recently was used to determine the barrier properties of the tested materials. This not only allowed to test the intrinsic migration of the films and the permeation through them, but also to simulate real packaging situations by using a recycled paper as donor for MOH. The migrated fractions were determined using gas-chromatography-based techniques. While the conventionally produced polymer films showed only moderate barrier function, excellent results were seen for the biopolymer. It reduced the migration from the recycled paper to not detectable, singling it out as a good alternative to conventional materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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14 pages, 1901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dialkylketones in Paperboard Food Contact Materials—Method of Analysis in Fatty Foods and Comparative Migration into Liquid Simulants Versus Foodstuffs

by Antía Lestido-Cardama, Ángela Störmer and Roland Franz

Molecules 2020, 25(4), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25040915 - 18 Feb 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4103

Abstract

Dialkyl diketene dimers are used as sizing agents in the manufacture of paper and board for food contact applications to increase wetting stability. Unbound residues can hydrolyze and decarboxylate into dialkylketones. These non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) have potential to migrate to fatty foods in contact with those packaging materials. In Germany, the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) established a specific migration limit (SML) of 5 mg/kg for the transfer of these dialkylketones into foodstuffs. In order to investigate the differences between simulants and real foods, an analytical method was optimized for extraction and quantification of dialkylketones in edible oils and fatty foods by gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization detection (GC-FID), and additionally by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), to confirm their identification and to quantify them in case of interferences. Dialkylketones are separated from the extracted fat by alkaline saponification of the triglycerides. Dialkylketones migration from paper-based food contact articles into organic solvents isooctane and dichloromethane, in olive and sunflower oils, and in fatty foods (croissants, Gouda, cheddar cheese, and salami was studied). As a result, it was found that the simulating tests, including the edible oil extraction tests, gave migration values that exceeded the SML largely, while the migration with the food samples were largely below the SML. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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15 pages, 4835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Quantitative Analysis of Six Isothiazolinones in Water-Based Adhesive Used for Food Contact Materials by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS)

by Huaining Zhong, Zicheng Li, Sheng Chen, Ying Zeng, Jianguo Zheng, You Zeng and Dan Li

Molecules 2019, 24(21), 3894; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24213894 - 29 Oct 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4860

Abstract

In this study, a target analytical approach using high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS) was developed to simultaneously determine six isothiazolinones containing 2-Methylisothiazol-3(2H)-one (MI), 5-Chloro-2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (CMI), 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (BIT), 2-Octyl-3(2H)-isothiazolinone (OIT), Dichlorooctylisothiazolinone (DCOIT), and 2-methyl-1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (MBIT) in water-based adhesive used for food contact materials. The main factors affecting extraction efficiency such as extraction method, extraction time, extraction solvent, and solid–liquid ratio have been evaluated by using real adhesive samples. Multiple-reaction monitoring (MRM) was used for the qualitative and quantitative analyses of targeted isothiazolinones. This method was demonstrated as an effective and reliable technique for detecting multiple isothiazolinones with satisfactory recoveries (81.5~107.3%), and the limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were obtained at a low level. This method was validated and applied to the determination of six isothiazolinones in commercial water-based adhesives. The present results revealed that these adhesives contained a combination of isothiazolinones (BIT, MI, CMI, and MBIT) with the concentration ranging from 2.27 to 123.5 mg/kg. To our knowledge, it is the first time it has been reported that MBIT was detected in water-based adhesives used for food contact materials, which requires a further investigation for its migration to food and the risk to human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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11 pages, 1163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Migration Studies of Two Common Components of UV-curing Inks into Food Simulants

by Miguel A. Lago, Raquel Sendón, Juana Bustos, María T. Nieto, Perfecto Paseiro Losada and Ana Rodríguez-Bernaldo de Quirós

Molecules 2019, 24(19), 3607; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24193607 - 07 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3049

Abstract

The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) has reported many cases of different UV curing inks components in foodstuffs during the last few years. These contaminants reach foodstuffs mainly by set-off, their principal migration mechanism from the package. Under this premise, this work has tried to characterize the process of migration of two common UV ink components: a photoinitiator (4-Methylbenzophenone) and a coinitiator (Ethyl-4-(dimethylamino) benzoate), from the most common plastic material used in food packaging low-density polyethylene (LDPE) into six different food simulants. The migration kinetics tests were performed at four different common storage temperatures, obtaining the key migration parameters for both molecules: the coefficients of diffusion and partition. The migration process was highly dependent on the storage conditions, the photoinitiator properties and the pH of the foodstuff. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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20 pages, 4600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Migration Studies of Photolytic Decomposition Products of UV-Photoinitiators in Food Packaging

by Joseph B. Scarsella, Nan Zhang and Thomas G. Hartman

Molecules 2019, 24(19), 3592; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24193592 - 06 Oct 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4220

Abstract

UV-curable inks, coatings, and adhesives are being increasingly used in food packaging systems. When exposed to UV energy, UV-photoinitiators (PI’s) present in the formulations produce free radicals which catalyze polymerization of monomers and pre-polymers into resins. In addition to photopolymerization, other free radical reactions occur in these systems resulting in the formation of chemically varied photolytic decomposition products, many of which are low molecular weight chemical species with high migration potential. This research conducted model experiments in which 24 commonly used PI’s were exposed to UV-energy at the typical upper limit of commercial UV-printing press conditions. UV-irradiated PI’s were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electrospray-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) in order to identify photolytic decomposition products. Subsequently, migration studies of 258 UV-cure food packaging samples were conducted using GC-MS; PI’s and photolytic decomposition products were found in nearly all samples analyzed. One hundred-thirteen photolytic decomposition products were identified. Eighteen intact PI’s and 21 photolytic decomposition products were observed as migrants from the 258 samples analyzed, and these were evaluated for frequency of occurrence and migratory concentration range. The most commonly observed PI’s were 2-hydroxy-2-methylpropiophenone and benzophenone. The most commonly observed photolytic decomposition products were 2,4,6-trimethylbenzaldehyde and 1-phenyl-2-butanone. This compilation of PI photolytic decomposition data and associated migration data will aid industry in identifying and tracing non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) in food packaging materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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31 pages, 11482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Ubiquitous Issue of Cross-Mass Transfer: Applications to Single-Use Systems

by Phuong-Mai Nguyen, Samuel Dorey and Olivier Vitrac

Molecules 2019, 24(19), 3467; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24193467 - 24 Sep 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3072

Abstract

The leaching of chemicals by materials has been integrated into risk management procedures of many sectors where hygiene and safety are important, including food, medical, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological applications. The approaches focus on direct contact and do not usually address the risk of cross-mass transfer of chemicals from one item or object to another and finally to the contacting phase (e.g., culture medium, biological fluids). Overpackaging systems, as well as secondary or ternary containers, are potentially large reservoirs of non-intentionally added substances (NIAS), which can affect the final risk of contamination. This study provides a comprehensive description of the cross-mass transfer phenomena for single-use bags along the chain of value and the methodology to evaluate them numerically on laminated and assembled systems. The methodology is validated on the risk of migration i) of ϵ-caprolactam originating from the polyamide 6 internal layer of the overpackaging and ii) of nine surrogate migrants with various volatilities and polarities. The effects of imperfect contacts between items and of an air gap between them are particularly discussed and interpreted as a cutoff distance depending on the considered substance. A probabilistic description is suggested to define conservative safety-margins required to manage cross-contamination and NIAS in routine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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11 pages, 1030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Impact of Accelerated Migration Testing for Coated Food Cans Using Food Simulants

by Rafael Paseiro-Cerrato, Lowri DeJager and Timothy H. Begley

Molecules 2019, 24(17), 3123; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24173123 - 28 Aug 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3284

Abstract

In this study, an accelerated migration test on food can coatings into food simulants was investigated. Food simulants covering a wide range of polarity were used to conduct migration tests at 60 °C with storage times ranging from 4 h to 30 days. Epoxy-resins, acrylic–phenolic, polyester, and vinyl coatings were exposed to water, 3% acetic acid, 50% ethanol, and Miglyol 812^®. Using liquid chromatography coupled to a variety of detectors (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS, UFLC-MS/MS, and HPLC-DAD), migration of several monomers and previously identified oligomers, as well as some unidentified migrants, were determined during the experiment. The data from this study was compared to our findings from previous long-term migration studies with storage times ranging from 24 h to 540 days at 40 °C using the same can coating applications. The results illustrate that performing migration experiments for short time periods at 60 °C may mimic migration results that would be obtained at 40 °C after long-term migration tests (up to 1.5 years) from food can coatings into food simulants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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Review

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18 pages, 5347 KiB

Open AccessReview

Analytical Approaches for Analysis of Safety of Modern Food Packaging: A Review

by Magdalena Wrona and Cristina Nerín

Molecules 2020, 25(3), 752; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030752 - 10 Feb 2020

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 7713

Abstract

Nowadays, food packaging is a crucial tool for preserving food quality and has become an inseparable part of our daily life. Strong consumer demand and market trends enforce more advanced and creative forms of food packaging. New packaging development requires safety evaluations that always implicate the application of complex analytical methods. The present work reviews the development and application of new analytical methods for detection of possible food contaminants from the packaging origin on the quality and safety of fresh food. Among food contaminants migrants, set-off migrants from printing inks, polymer degradation products, and aromatic volatile compounds can be found that may compromise the safety and organoleptic properties of food. The list of possible chemical migrants is very wide and includes antioxidants, antimicrobials, intentionally added substances (IAS), non-intentionally added substances (NIAS), monomers, oligomers, and nanoparticles. All this information collected prior to the analysis will influence the type of analyzing samples and molecules (analytes) and therefore the selection of a convenient analytical method. Different analytical strategies will be discussed, including techniques for direct polymer analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Packaging Materials)

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