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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 August 2021) | Viewed by 49671

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Dr. Tuhin Mukherjee

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
Interests: additive manufacturing; heat transfer and fluid flow; mechanistic modeling; machine learning; compositionally graded alloys; residual stresses and distortion; defect formation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am writing to invite you to submit a manuscript on the science and technology of additive manufacturing/3D printing for a Special Issue of Materials. Submissions may focus on novel scientific or technological aspects of 3D printing processes or part attributes. Topics of interest include but are not limited to novel design for 3D printing; new applications of 3D printing processes; alloy design; 3D printing of single crystals; tailoring microstructure; customized mechanical and chemical properties; improved creep resistance, fatigue life, and serviceability; micro- and mesoscale defects; residual stresses and distortion; applications of mechanistic and statistical modeling; and machine learning in 3D printing. The scope of this Special Issue also includes all 3D printing processes for alloys, ceramics, and polymers. The categories of paper types that will be considered include technical papers, short communications, perspectives, and reviews. The length of reviews will depend on topics but will be decided by prior agreement with the editors.

The contents must be original unpublished work that have not been submitted for publication elsewhere.

Please review the guide for authors at https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials/instructions.

Articles should be submitted to the MDPI submission system which will be available at starting 23 February, 2020 and will remain open until 31 May, 2021. Please select the Special Issue name of “The Science and Technology of 3D printing” as the article type during submission.

Papers will appear online as they are accepted. It is anticipated that the completed Special Issue will appear in the spring of 2021.

Details on this Special Issue can also be found at [https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials/special_issues/tdp20].

We look forward to working with you in the publication of this Special Issue. Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions.

Dr. Tuhin Mukherjee
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Design for 3D printing
Alloy design
3D printing of single crystals
Tailoring microstructure
Customized properties
Defect formation
Residual stresses and distortion
Mechanistic and statistical modeling
Machine learning

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 182 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: The Science and Technology of 3D Printing

by Tuhin Mukherjee

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6261; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216261 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1873

Abstract

Additive manufacturing, commonly known as three-dimensional printing (3D printing), is becoming an increasingly popular method for making components that are difficult to fabricate using traditional manufacturing processes [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

Research

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16 pages, 1835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Geometric Data into Topology Optimization via Neural Style Transfer

by Praveen S. Vulimiri, Hao Deng, Florian Dugast, Xiaoli Zhang and Albert C. To

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4551; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164551 - 13 Aug 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3097

Abstract

This research proposes a novel topology optimization method using neural style transfer to simultaneously optimize both structural performance for a given loading condition and geometric similarity for a reference design. For the neural style transfer, the convolutional layers of a pre-trained neural network extract and quantify characteristic features from the reference and input designs for optimization. The optimization analysis is evaluated as a single weighted objective function with the ability for the user to control the influence of the neural style transfer with the structural performance. As seen in architecture and consumer-facing products, the visual appeal of a design contributes to its overall value along with mechanical performance metrics. Using this method, a designer allows the tool to find the ideal compromise of these metrics. Three case studies are included to demonstrate the capabilities of this method with various loading conditions and reference designs. The structural performances of the novel designs are within 10% of the baseline without geometric reference, and the designs incorporate features in the given reference such as member size or meshed features. The performance of the proposed optimizer is compared against other optimizers without the geometric similarity constraint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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15 pages, 5512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contrasting the Role of Pores on the Stress State Dependent Fracture Behavior of Additively Manufactured Low and High Ductility Metals

by Alexander E. Wilson-Heid, Erik T. Furton and Allison M. Beese

Materials 2021, 14(13), 3657; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14133657 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2439

Abstract

This study investigates the disparate impact of internal pores on the fracture behavior of two metal alloys fabricated via laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) additive manufacturing (AM)—316L stainless steel and Ti-6Al-4V. Data from mechanical tests over a range of stress states for dense samples and those with intentionally introduced penny-shaped pores of various diameters were used to contrast the combined impact of pore size and stress state on the fracture behavior of these two materials. The fracture data were used to calibrate and compare multiple fracture models (Mohr-Coulomb, Hosford-Coulomb, and maximum stress criteria), with results compared in equivalent stress (versus stress triaxiality and Lode angle) space, as well as in their conversions to equivalent strain space. For L-PBF 316L, the strain-based fracture models captured the stress state dependent failure behavior up to the largest pore size studied (2400 µm diameter, 16% cross-sectional area of gauge region), while for L-PBF Ti-6Al-4V, the stress-based fracture models better captured the change in failure behavior with pore size up to the largest pore size studied. This difference can be attributed to the relatively high ductility of 316L stainless steel, for which all samples underwent significant plastic deformation prior to failure, contrasted with the relatively low ductility of Ti-6Al-4V, for which, with increasing pore size, the displacement to failure was dominated by elastic deformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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16 pages, 10671 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties for Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Parts Produced Using Non-Spherical Precursor Powder by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Jaime Varela, Edel Arrieta, Muktesh Paliwal, Mike Marucci, Jose H. Sandoval, Jose A. Gonzalez, Brandon McWilliams, Lawrence E. Murr, Ryan B. Wicker and Francisco Medina

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3028; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113028 - 2 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3549

Abstract

An unmodified, non-spherical, hydride-dehydride (HDH) Ti-6Al-4V powder having a substantial economic advantage over spherical, atomized Ti-6Al-4V alloy powder was used to fabricate a range of test components and aerospace-related products utilizing laser beam powder-bed fusion processing. The as-built products, utilizing optimized processing parameters, had a Rockwell-C scale (HRC) hardness of 44.6. Following heat treatments which included annealing at 704 °C, HIP at ~926 °C (average), and HIP + anneal, the HRC hardnesses were observed to be 43.9, 40.7, and 40.4, respectively. The corresponding tensile yield stress, UTS, and elongation for these heat treatments averaged 1.19 GPa, 1.22 GPa, 8.7%; 1.03 GPa, 1.08 GPa, 16.7%; 1.04 GPa, 1.09 GPa, 16.1%, respectively. The HIP yield strength and elongation of 1.03 GPa and 16.7% are comparable to the best commercial, wrought Ti-6Al-4V products. The corresponding HIP component microstructures consisted of elongated small grains (~125 microns diameter) containing fine, alpha/beta lamellae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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11 pages, 2539 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

In-Situ Characterization of Pore Formation Dynamics in Pulsed Wave Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by S. Mohammad H. Hojjatzadeh, Qilin Guo, Niranjan D. Parab, Minglei Qu, Luis I. Escano, Kamel Fezzaa, Wes Everhart, Tao Sun and Lianyi Chen

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2936; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112936 - 29 May 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4057

Abstract

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is an additive manufacturing technology with the capability of printing complex metal parts directly from digital models. Between two available emission modes employed in LPBF printing systems, pulsed wave (PW) emission provides more control over the heat input compared to continuous wave (CW) emission, which is highly beneficial for printing parts with intricate features. However, parts printed with pulsed wave LPBF (PW-LPBF) commonly contain pores, which degrade their mechanical properties. In this study, we reveal pore formation mechanisms during PW-LPBF in real time by using an in-situ high-speed synchrotron x-ray imaging technique. We found that vapor depression collapse proceeds when the laser irradiation stops within one pulse, resulting in occasional pore formation during PW-LPBF. We also revealed that the melt ejection and rapid melt pool solidification during pulsed-wave laser melting resulted in cavity formation and subsequent formation of a pore pattern in the melted track. The pore formation dynamics revealed here may provide guidance on developing pore elimination approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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14 pages, 6585 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Powder Bed Temperature on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Fabricated via Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Lei-Lei Xing, Wen-Jing Zhang, Cong-Cong Zhao, Wen-Qiang Gao, Zhi-Jian Shen and Wei Liu

Materials 2021, 14(9), 2278; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092278 - 28 Apr 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3145

Abstract

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is being increasingly used in the fabrication of complex-shaped structure parts with high precision. It is easy to form martensitic microstructure in Ti-6Al-4V alloy during manufacturing. Pre-heating the powder bed can enhance the thermal field produced by cyclic laser heating during LPBF, which can tailor the microstructure and further improve the mechanical properties. In the present study, all the Ti-6Al-4V alloy samples manufactured by LPBF at different powder bed temperatures exhibit a near-full densification state, with the densification ratio of above 99.4%. When the powder bed temperature is lower than 400 °C, the specimens are composed of a single α′ martensite. As the temperature elevates to higher than 400 °C, the α and β phase precipitate at the α′ martensite boundaries by the diffusion and redistribution of V element. In addition, the α/α′ lath coarsening is presented with the increasing powder bed temperature. The specimens manufactured at the temperature lower than 400 °C exhibit high strength but bad ductility. Moreover, the ultimate tensile strength and yield strength reduce slightly, whereas the ductility is improved dramatically with the increasing temperature, when it is higher than 400 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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10 pages, 1250 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Modelling the Variability and the Anisotropic Behaviour of Crack Growth in SLM Ti-6Al-4V

by Rhys Jones, Calvin Rans, Athanasios P. Iliopoulos, John G. Michopoulos, Nam Phan and Daren Peng

Materials 2021, 14(6), 1400; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14061400 - 13 Mar 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 2451

Abstract

The United States Air Force (USAF) Guidelines for the Durability and Damage Tolerance (DADT) certification of Additive Manufactured (AM) parts states that the most difficult challenge for the certification of an AM part is to establish an accurate prediction of its DADT. How to address this challenge is the focus of the present paper. To this end this paper examines the variability in crack growth in tests on additively manufactured (AM) Ti-6Al-4V specimens built using selective layer melting (SLM). One series of tests analysed involves thirty single edge notch tension specimens with five build orientations and two different post heat treatments. The other test program analysed involved ASTM standard single edge notch specimens with three different build directions. The results of this study highlight the ability of the Hartman–Schijve crack growth equation to capture the variability and the anisotropic behaviour of crack growth in SLM Ti-6Al-4V. It is thus shown that, despite the large variability in crack growth, the intrinsic crack growth equation remains unchanged and that the variability and the anisotropic nature of crack growth in this test program is captured by allowing for changes in both the fatigue threshold and the cyclic fracture toughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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14 pages, 13758 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Porosity Analysis of Additive Manufactured Parts Using CAQ Technology

by Peter Pokorný, Štefan Václav, Jana Petru and Michaela Kritikos

Materials 2021, 14(5), 1142; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051142 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2847

Abstract

Components produced by additive technology are implemented in various spheres of industry, such as automotive or aerospace. This manufacturing process can lead to making highly optimized parts. There is not enough information about the quality of the parts produced by additive technologies, especially those made from metal powder. The research in this article deals with the porosity of components produced by additive technologies. The components used for the research were manufactured by the selective laser melting (SLM) method. The shape of these components is the same as the shape used for the tensile test. The investigated parts were printed with orientation in two directions, Z and XZ with respect to the machine platform. The printing strategy was “stripe”. The material used for printing of the parts was SS 316L-0407. The printing parameters were laser power of 200 W, scanning speed of 650 mm/s, and the thickness of the layer was 50 µm. A non-destructive method was used for the components’ porosity evaluation. The scanning was performed by CT machine METROTOM 1500. The radiation parameters used for getting 3D scans were voltage 180 kV, current 900 µA, detector resolution 1024 × 1024 px, voxel size 119.43 µm, number of projections 1050, and integration time 2000 ms. This entire measurement process responds to the computer aided quality (CAQ) technology. VG studio MAX 3.0 software was used to evaluate the obtained data. The porosity of the parts with Z and XZ orientation was also evaluated for parts’ thicknesses of 1, 2, and 3 mm, respectively. It has been proven by this experimental investigation that the printing direction of the part in the additive manufacturing process under question affects its porosity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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Review

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35 pages, 3661 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Trends and Innovation in Additive Manufacturing of Soft Functional Materials

by Jaime Eduardo Regis, Anabel Renteria, Samuel Ernesto Hall, Md Sahid Hassan, Cory Marquez and Yirong Lin

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4521; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164521 - 12 Aug 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5219

Abstract

The growing demand for wearable devices, soft robotics, and tissue engineering in recent years has led to an increased effort in the field of soft materials. With the advent of personalized devices, the one-shape-fits-all manufacturing methods may soon no longer be the standard for the rapidly increasing market of soft devices. Recent findings have pushed technology and materials in the area of additive manufacturing (AM) as an alternative fabrication method for soft functional devices, taking geometrical designs and functionality to greater heights. For this reason, this review aims to highlights recent development and advances in AM processable soft materials with self-healing, shape memory, electronic, chromic or any combination of these functional properties. Furthermore, the influence of AM on the mechanical and physical properties on the functionality of these materials is expanded upon. Additionally, advances in soft devices in the fields of soft robotics, biomaterials, sensors, energy harvesters, and optoelectronics are discussed. Lastly, current challenges in AM for soft functional materials and future trends are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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28 pages, 7489 KiB

Open AccessReview

3D Printing of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composites Using Fused Deposition Modeling: A Status Review

by Salman Pervaiz, Taimur Ali Qureshi, Ghanim Kashwani and Sathish Kannan

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4520; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164520 - 12 Aug 2021

Cited by 99 | Viewed by 9241

Abstract

Composite materials are a combination of two or more types of materials used to enhance the mechanical and structural properties of engineering products. When fibers are mixed in the polymeric matrix, the composite material is known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP). FRP materials are widely used in structural applications related to defense, automotive, aerospace, and sports-based industries. These materials are used in producing lightweight components with high tensile strength and rigidity. The fiber component in fiber-reinforced polymers provides the desired strength-to-weight ratio; however, the polymer portion costs less, and the process of making the matrix is quite straightforward. There is a high demand in industrial sectors, such as defense and military, aerospace, automotive, biomedical and sports, to manufacture these fiber-reinforced polymers using 3D printing and additive manufacturing technologies. FRP composites are used in diversified applications such as military vehicles, shelters, war fighting safety equipment, fighter aircrafts, naval ships, and submarine structures. Techniques to fabricate composite materials, degrade the weight-to-strength ratio and the tensile strength of the components, and they can play a critical role towards the service life of the components. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a technique for 3D printing that allows layered fabrication of parts using thermoplastic composites. Complex shape and geometry with enhanced mechanical properties can be obtained using this technique. This paper highlights the limitations in the development of FRPs and challenges associated with their mechanical properties. The future prospects of carbon fiber (CF) and polymeric matrixes are also mentioned in this study. The study also highlights different areas requiring further investigation in FDM-assisted 3D printing. The available literature on FRP composites is focused only on describing the properties of the product and the potential applications for it. It has been observed that scientific knowledge has gaps when it comes to predicting the performance of FRP composite parts fabricated under 3D printing (FDM) techniques. The mechanical properties of 3D-printed FRPs were studied so that a correlation between the 3D printing method could be established. This review paper will be helpful for researchers, scientists, manufacturers, etc., working in the area of FDM-assisted 3D printing of FRPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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20 pages, 3775 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Metallic Alloys Fabrication Using Elemental Powder Blends by Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition Process

by Yitao Chen, Xinchang Zhang, Mohammad Masud Parvez and Frank Liou

Materials 2020, 13(16), 3562; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163562 - 12 Aug 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5482

Abstract

The laser powder directed energy deposition process is a metal additive manufacturing technique, which can fabricate metal parts with high geometric and material flexibility. The unique feature of in-situ powder feeding makes it possible to customize the elemental composition using elemental powder mixture during the fabrication process. Thus, it can be potentially applied to synthesize industrial alloys with low cost, modify alloys with different powder mixtures, and design novel alloys with location-dependent properties using elemental powder blends as feedstocks. This paper provides an overview of using a laser powder directed energy deposition method to fabricate various types of alloys by feeding elemental powder blends. At first, the advantage of laser powder directed energy deposition in manufacturing metal alloys is described in detail. Then, the state-of-the-art research and development in alloys fabricated by laser powder directed energy deposition through a mix of elemental powders in multiple categories is reviewed. Finally, critical technical challenges, mainly in composition control are discussed for future development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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Other

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20 pages, 6983 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

3D Printed Sand Tools for Thermoforming Applications of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites—A Perspective

by Daniel Günther, Patricia Erhard, Simon Schwab and Iman Taha

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4639; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164639 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3643

Abstract

Tooling, especially for prototyping or small series, may prove to be very costly. Further, prototyping of fiber reinforced thermoplastic shell structures may rely on time-consuming manual efforts. This perspective paper discusses the idea of fabricating tools at reduced time and cost compared to conventional machining-based methods. The targeted tools are manufactured out of sand using the Binder Jetting process. These molds should fulfill the demands regarding flexural and compressive behavior while allowing for vacuum thermoforming of fiber reinforced thermoplastic sheets. The paper discusses the requirements and the challenges and presents a perspective study addressing this innovative idea. The authors present the idea for discussion in the additive manufacturing and FRP producing communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Science and Technology of 3D Printing)

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