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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2025) | Viewed by 10464

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Dr. Ina Pundienė

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Laboratory of Concrete Technologies, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saulėtekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: building materials; waste reusing; additives and admixtures; reuse; structural properties
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Dr. Jolanta Pranckevičienė

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Concrete Technologies, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saulėtekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: composite materials; ceramic; waste; additives and admixtures; recycle; durability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, due to rising concerns regarding the greenhouse emissions produced by the building material production industry, there has been significant interest in the development of waste-based building materials. The increasing scarcity of raw materials necessitates the maximum utilization of various wastes to fabricate building materials. The growing demand for sustainable construction practices has led to the exploration of eco-friendly materials in building material production. This Special Issue, entitled “The development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products”, focuses on incorporating solid waste and industrial by-products as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in order to reduce the environmental footprint of concrete production. This approach not only tackles resource depletion and environmental degradation, but also seeks to enhance the durability and performance of concrete structures. This Special Issue highlights cutting-edge research and innovations in the optimization of waste pretreatment, incorporating innovative additives into concrete formulations, and designing eco-efficient concrete mixtures.

Dr. Ina Pundiene
Dr. Jolanta Pranckevičienė
Guest Editors

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Keywords

cement based materials
alkali-activated materials
organic and inorganic waste
ceramic materials
admixture
nanomaterials
durability
material characterization.

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Related Special Issue

The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products (Second Edition) in Materials

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Research

19 pages, 4138 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mechanical Strength and Resistance to Freeze–Thaw Cycles and Chloride Ions of Fly Ash Mortar Mixed with Limestone Powder Cured Under Low Temperature

by Qingfeng Chen, Weizhun Jin, Jingjing Li, Min Huang, Pengfei Fang and Yuru Zhao

Materials 2025, 18(20), 4814; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18204814 - 21 Oct 2025

Viewed by 193

Abstract

Fly ash (FA) and limestone powder (LS) are both environmentally friendly substitutes for cement. The mechanical strength and durability of hydraulic concrete with FA and LS cured under low temperature deserve attention. In this study, the mechanical strength and durability properties of cement mortar based on FA and LS cured under a low temperature of 5 °C were investigated. The compressive strength and resistance to freeze–thaw cycles and chloride ions of mortar with FA and LS were evaluated. The results reveal that adding 5% LS can increase the compressive strength of mortar containing 30% FA by 14.31% at 3 d and 1.63% at 180 d. The addition of 5% LS can result in a 0.58% reduction in the mass loss rate and an increase of 2.98% in RDM compared to the mortar with 30% FA after 100 freeze–thaw cycles. Meanwhile, the addition of 5% LS results in a 5.68% reduction in the chloride diffusion coefficient compared to the mortar with 30% FA. However, for the mortar containing 60% FA, any proportion of LS cannot increase the compressive strength of FA mortar from 3 d to 180 d and will decrease the resistance to freeze–thaw cycles and chloride ions. For the mortar containing 30% FA, the addition of 5% LS can promote the hydration product of C-S-H and obtain the minimum total amount of large capillary pores and air pores. Adding 10% LS can result in the mortar with 30% FA obtaining the lowest unit CO₂ emission, and adding 5% LS can result in the mortar with 60% FA obtaining the lowest unit CO₂ emission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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13 pages, 3953 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Restraint Effect of Post-Casting Belt in Full-Section Interval Casting Immersed Tube

by Bang-Yan Liang, Wen-Huo Sun, Yong-Hui Huang and Kai Wang

Materials 2025, 18(20), 4665; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18204665 - 10 Oct 2025

Viewed by 311

Abstract

The Chebei integral Immersed Tunnel introduced an innovative full-section interval casting process, where post-casting belts impose restraint effects on the full-section casting segments. To mitigate concrete cracking, this study investigates the influence of the bottom steel plate and steel bars in the post-casting belts on the mechanical behavior of full-section casting segments through comparative analysis of field tests and numerical simulations. Requirements for post-casting belt length are proposed. Key findings include: under post-casting belt restraint, the full-section casting segment’s shrinkage strain reached 348 με, with hydration heat-induced cooling and drying shrinkage contributing 60% and 40%, respectively. A temperature-dependent thermal expansion coefficient model was developed to characterize the nonlinear relationship between concrete strain and hydration heat temperature. Restraint effects diminished with increasing post-casting belt length, and the post-casting belt length should be control. At 1.6 m (Chebei design), restraint-induced tensile stress was 1.4 MPa (restraint coefficient β = 0.12), with the bottom steel plate and steel bars contributing about 70% and 30%, respectively. Relationships between post-casting belt length, stress, and restraint coefficient are established for engineering reference. These research findings have been successfully applied in the Chebei Immersed Tunnel, enabling high-quality prefabrication of full-section interval casting immersed tubes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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32 pages, 9263 KB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Geopolymers Based on Fly Ash with the Addition of Asphalt from Road Surface Demolition

by Barbara Kozub

Materials 2025, 18(19), 4488; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18194488 - 26 Sep 2025

Viewed by 371

Abstract

This article presents the results of a comprehensive investigation into geopolymer composites synthesized from fly ash, incorporating ground asphalt derived from reclaimed road pavement and quartz sand. The primary objective of this study was to elucidate the influence of mixture composition on the mechanical, physical, and microstructural characteristics of the developed materials. The innovative aspect of this research lies in the integration of two distinct filler types—mineral (quartz sand) and organic-mineral (milled asphalt)—within a single geopolymer matrix, while preserving key performance parameters required for engineering applications, including compressive and flexural strength, density, water absorption, and abrasion resistance. The experimental methodology encompassed the characterization of the raw materials by X-ray diffraction (XRD), chemical composition analysis via X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and assessment of particle size distribution. Additionally, the produced geopolymer materials underwent density determination, compressive and flexural strength measurements, abrasion testing, and mass water absorption evaluation. The chemical composition was further examined using XRF, and the surface morphology of the specimens was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The findings demonstrate that the incorporation of quartz sand enhances the density and mechanical strength of the composites, whereas the addition of recycled asphalt, despite causing a modest reduction in mechanical performance at elevated dosages, augments water resistance. Moreover, ternary composite material provide an optimal compromise between mechanical strength and durability under humid conditions. Overall, the results substantiate the feasibility of utilizing asphalt waste for the fabrication of functional and sustainable geopolymer materials suitable for construction applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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18 pages, 3629 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Mechanical Properties and Binding Behavior of Chloride in Cement Paste Under Premixed High Concentration of Chloride Ions

by Aiqin Wang, Xixian Du, Gang Li, Aoli Cao, Yuwei Ma and Yang Zhou

Materials 2025, 18(19), 4465; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18194465 - 25 Sep 2025

Viewed by 392

Abstract

Chloride erodes steel bars through concrete pores, seriously affecting the durability of reinforced concrete structures. Improving the binding ability to chloride is an important measure. We explored the effects of W/C, curing age, and premixed Cl⁻ concentration on the compressive strength and Cl⁻ binding capacity in cement pastes. The results indicate that a premixed 5% concentration of Cl⁻ can improve the compressive strength, whereas an excessive Cl⁻ negatively impacts the mechanical properties. The total Cl⁻ content in cement pastes is a crucial factor that influences the binding ability of Cl⁻. When the total Cl⁻ content is within 2% (i.e., the premixed Cl⁻ concentration is 5%), the cement paste has a strong binding ability of Cl⁻. W/C and curing age indirectly affect the binding ability by affecting the total Cl⁻ content. Furthermore, with the increase in content of Cl⁻, the adsorption content of Cl⁻ by C-S-H increased, while the proportion of Cl⁻ bound by Fs to the total bound Cl⁻ initially declines and then tends to stabilize. It is worth noting that a premixed concentration of 5% is a “safety limit” for cement paste, but for reinforced concrete, the presence of free Cl⁻ above normative thresholds should not be underestimated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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14 pages, 2602 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbonation and Chloride Resistance Characteristics of Self-Developed Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) Derived from Excavated Spoil

by Yunyuan Li, Lixin Miao, Zhijun Dong, Yu Jin, Wei Liu, Fangsheng Gao and Yongqiang Li

Materials 2025, 18(11), 2546; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18112546 - 28 May 2025

Viewed by 1150

Abstract

To validate the long-term performance of self-developed limestone calcined clay cement (LC3), this study evaluated the durability performance of LC3 produced using calcined excavated spoil. Results showed that LC3 exhibited a faster chloride adsorption rate than OPC, achieving peak binding capacity within 14 days, although its total chloride-binding capacity was slightly lower. The chloride diffusion coefficient of LC3 was approximately one order of magnitude lower than that of OPC, enhancing chloride resistance. However, LC3 demonstrated weaker carbonation resistance due to complete decomposition of portlandite (Ca(OH)₂) and ettringite (AFt), alongside partial degradation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gels, resulting in pore structure coarsening. Compared to LC3 made with commercial metakaolin (K0), the self-developed LC3 using K1 and K2 clays from excavated spoil showed comparable chloride-binding capacity but slightly weaker chloride penetration resistance. Its carbonation resistance surpassed K0-based LC3. Overall, the self-developed LC3 matched commercial metakaolin-based LC3 in durability, validating the use of locally sourced clays. Producing LC3 from calcined excavated spoil addresses environmental challenges associated with spoil disposal while delivering satisfactory durability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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15 pages, 5985 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Compaction Degree on the Carbonation Properties of Steel Slag

by Zihan Yan, Wenxiao Fu, Longbin Zhao, Ziyan Gao, Sitong Chen, Qianruo Wang and Wei Long

Materials 2025, 18(7), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18071629 - 3 Apr 2025

Viewed by 827

Abstract

Carbonation technology offers a novel approach to enhance steel slag performance, where the compaction degree plays a pivotal role in optimizing the carbonation process. This study reveals that as the compaction degree increases, the peak temperature in the carbonation environment gradually decreases, and the intensity of the carbonation reaction weakens. Post-carbonating, the compressive strength initially increases before declining, peaking at a compaction degree of 60%. At this optimal compaction degree, the material achieves a compressive strength of 124.4 MPa and a CO₂ uptake of 14.5%. The analysis of pore size distribution and carbonation products reveals that steel slag compacts with lower compaction degrees exhibit larger internal pores, leading to dispersed and isolated carbonation products, which restrict performance improvement. Conversely, excessively high compaction degrees cause the premature blockage of gas diffusion pathways by calcium carbonate particles, which impede the carbonation process and degrade the mechanical performance. The moderate compaction of steel slag effectively prevents the early blockage of gas channels, and significantly facilitates the accumulation and bonding of carbonation products, thereby achieving the superior performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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15 pages, 3819 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multiscale Investigation of Modified Recycled Aggregate Concrete on Sulfate Attack Resistance

by Xue-Fei Chen, Xiu-Cheng Zhang and Guo-Hui Yan

Materials 2025, 18(7), 1450; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18071450 - 25 Mar 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 733

Abstract

This study investigated the sulfate resistance of modified recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) by applying carbonation and nano-silica soaking methodologies. Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) derived from concretes of C30 and C60 strength grades were subjected to these modification techniques and subsequently utilized in the fabrication of RAC specimens. The results show notable porosity and crack density within the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) interfacing recycled aggregate and cement paste in recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). Specifically, the porosity within the ITZ of RAC is observed to be up to 30% higher than that of virgin aggregate concrete. These pathways facilitate the penetration of sulfate ions, subsequently inducing deterioration and resulting in a compression strength reduction of up to 40%. While carbonation treatment exhibits a moderate enhancement in sulfate resistance, decreasing the sulfate penetration depth by 15%, the incorporation of 2% nano-silica by weight of cement proves significantly more effective. This addition reduces the sulfate penetration depth by over 30% and lowers the sulfate concentration by 25%. Furthermore, the compressive strength of RAC modified with nano-silica increases by 15% following 28 days of sulfate exposure. Additionally, a 30% reduction in the sulfate ion mass equilibrium depth is observed in nano-silica-modified RAC, accompanied by a markedly lower sulfate concentration in the pore solution. After 56 days of sulfate attack, the compressive strength of nano-silica-modified RAC retains 85% of its initial value, whereas unmodified RAC decreases to 70%. Notably, the quality of recycled aggregate significantly impacts sulfate resistance, with high-strength RCA (exceeding 40 MPa) demonstrating superior resistance compared to low-strength RCA (below 20 MPa). Consequently, RAC produced with high-strength RCA experiences only a 20% loss in compressive strength under sulfate attack, whereas RAC containing low-strength RCA suffers a 40% loss. The novelty of this study is the effective use of nano-silica soaking and carbonation to enhance the sulfate resistance and compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete originated from both normal and high-strength reference concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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22 pages, 6753 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Properties of Basalt Fiber-Calcined Gangue-Silty Clay Foam Concrete for Filling Undermined Goaf Areas of Highways

by Yucong Yin, Qinglin Li, Yangpeng Zhang, Xiaodong Jiao, Pengrui Feng and Hexiang Zhang

Materials 2025, 18(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18010047 - 26 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 914

Abstract

The collapse of surface goaf beneath highways can result in instability and damage to roadbeds. However, filling the goaf areas with foam concrete can significantly enhance the stability of the roadbeds while considerably reducing the costs of filling materials. This study analyzes the effects on destructive characteristics, mechanical properties, stress–strain curve features, and relevant metrics, while also observing the microstructure of basalt fiber-calcined gangue-silty clay foam concrete (BF-CCG-SCFC). The results indicate that the water–binder ratio significantly influences the cubic compressive strength, split tensile strength, and fluidity of BF-CCG-SCFC. Silty clay reduces the cubic compressive strength, split tensile strength, and fluidity of BF-CCG-SCFC. Conversely, an appropriate amount of calcined gangue and basalt fiber significantly increases the cubic compressive strength and split tensile strength, while decreasing fluidity. To satisfy the strength and fluidity requirements of the filler material in hollow areas, the optimal water–binder ratio for BF-CCG-SCFC is 0.55, the ideal mixing ratio of calcined gangue to silty clay is 2:2, and the basalt fiber content should be 1%. The study examines the influence of varying water–binder ratios, the combined proportions of calcined gangue and silty clay, and different basalt fiber contents on the elastic modulus, peak stress, and peak strain of BF-CCG-SCFC. Additionally, the water–binder ratio influences the matrix strength through the non-hydration reactions of doped particles, while gangue and clay induce a “gradient hydration effect” during the hydration process. The incorporation of basalt fibers enhances the mechanical interlocking between the fibers and the matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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17 pages, 2041 KB

Open AccessArticle

Styrene–Butadiene Rubber Latex Modified Mortars Prepared with High Early Strength Portland Cement

by Modestas Kligys and Giedrius Girskas

Materials 2024, 17(23), 6000; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17236000 - 7 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1476

Abstract

The increased early hydration rate of high early strength cement has economic advantages in many civil engineering fields (faster formwork removal or earlier demoulding of precast elements). Styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) latex is the most common polymer in aqueous dispersions suitable for admixing in cement-based materials. It allows the designing of structures with specific properties for a variety of applications. The analysis of literature sources has shown that different properties of SBR latex-modified cement-based material samples reported were usually measured at 3, 7, 14, and 28 days of hardening. In this research, the authors decided to investigate a combined effect of high early strength Portland cement, characterized by an increased hydration rate, and SBR latex able to retard this process for a prolonged hardening period—up to 90 days in modified mortar samples. This study covers the results of the effect of different amounts of SBR latex (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) on the properties of modified mortar samples with a constant water-to-cement ratio prepared with high early strength Portland cement 42.5 R. The mortar samples were prepared from local raw materials produced by the Lithuanian companies. The properties, such as dry bulk density, ultrasonic pulse velocity, capillary water absorption, compressive and flexural strengths, and toughness, after three different hardening periods (7, 28, and 90 days) of the mortar samples were investigated. The applied mathematical–statistical methods allowed a detailed prognosis of the dependence between the dry bulk density and the strength properties of modified mortar samples. The combination of 42.5 R strength class Portland cement with the SBR latex in amounts ranging from 5% to 20% seems to be suitable for designing durable structures with specific properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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20 pages, 3485 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance-Based Design of Ferronickel Slag Alkali-Activated Concrete for High Thermal Load Applications

by Andres Arce, Anastasija Komkova, Catherine G. Papanicolaou and Thanasis C. Triantafillou

Materials 2024, 17(19), 4939; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17194939 - 9 Oct 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1363

Abstract

This study aimed to develop optimized alkali-activated concrete using ferronickel slag for high-temperature applications, focusing on minimizing environmental impact while maintaining high compressive strength and slump. A response surface methodology, specifically the mixture design of experiments, was employed to optimize five components: water, FNS-based alkali-activated binder, and three aggregate sizes. Twenty concrete mixes were tested for slump and compressive strength before and after exposure to 600 °C for two hours. The optimal mix achieved 88 MPa compressive strength before heat exposure and 34 MPa after, with a slump of 140 mm. An upscaled version with improved workability (210 mm slump) maintained similar unheated strength but showed reduced post-heating strength (23.5 MPa). Replacing limestone with olivine aggregates in the upscaled mix resulted in 65 MPa unheated and 32 MPa post-heating strengths. Life Cycle Analysis revealed that the optimized ferronickel slag alkali-activated concrete’s CO₂ emissions were 77% lower than those of ordinary Portland cement concrete of equivalent strength. This approach demonstrated the applicability of mixture design of experiments as an alternative design methodology for alkali activated concrete, providing a valuable performance-based design tool to advance the application of alkali-activated concrete in the construction industry, where no prescriptive standards for alkali-activated ferronickel concrete mix design exist. The study concluded that the developed ferronickel slag alkali-activated concrete, obtained through a performance-based mixture design methodology, offers a promising, environmentally friendly alternative for high-strength, high-temperature applications in construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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23 pages, 6697 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lifecycle Assessment and Multi-Parameter Optimization of Lightweight Cement Mortar with Nano Additives

by Yiying Du, Aleksandrs Korjakins, Maris Sinka and Ina Pundienė

Materials 2024, 17(17), 4434; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174434 - 9 Sep 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1844

Abstract

With the growing global concerns regarding sustainable development in the building and construction industries, concentration only on the engineering properties of building materials can no longer meet the requirements. Although some studies have been implemented based on the lifecycle assessment of lightweight cement-based materials, very few attempts have been made pertaining to multi-criteria optimization, especially when fly ash cenospheres are used as lightweight aggregates and nano additives are incorporated as modifying admixtures. This investigation utilized cenospheres as fine aggregates to produce green, sustainable, lightweight cement mortar. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes at 0.05, 0.15, and 0.45% were binarily added, together with 0.2, 0.6, and 1.0% of nano silica to improve the mechanical performance. Strength tests were conducted to measure the flexural and compressive behaviors, combined with a cradle-to-gate lifecycle assessment and direct cost analysis to assess the environmental and economic viability. Integrated indexes and the TOPSIS method were adopted to systematically evaluate the mortar mixes and determine the optimal mix. The outcomes show that nano additives worked synergically to enhance the mechanical properties of the mortars. The utilization of cenospheres effectively reduced environmental impacts and improved economic feasibility. Nano additives significantly affected the sustainability and economic viability; in particular, the utilization of multi-walled carbon nanotubes increased the material costs. To minimize the impact of the price of multi-walled carbon nanotubes, it is proposed to binarily use less expensive nano silica. In the multi-parameter optimization, the mix with 0.05% multi-walled carbon nanotubes and 0.02% nano silica was recommended to be the optimal mix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Sustainable Concrete with Solid Waste and By-Products)

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