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Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements

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A Special Issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944) belonging to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 10 October 2026 | Viewed by 7958

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Weidong Cao

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Guest Editor

School of Qilu Transportation, Shandong University, Jinan, China
Interests: road engineering materials; pavement structure; asphalt pavements; modeling

Dr. Jizhe Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Qilu Transportation, Shandong University, Jinan, China
Interests: design and characterization of new pavement materials; resource utilization of solid waste; road engineering intelligent maintenance equipment and technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Dedong Guo

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Guest Editor Assistant

School of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Shandong Jiaotong University, Jinan, China
Interests: pavement materials and structure; sustainable and smart new materials and technologies for road construction and maintenance

Dr. Wengang Zhang

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Guest Editor Assistant

School of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
Interests: polymer modified asphalt; alternative and recycled materials for civil engineering; intelligent road materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Asphalt mixture is the most commonly used material for road pavement. A thorough understanding of its material properties, behavior under various conditions, and the impact of design choices on its longevity is essential for optimizing pavement performance and lifecycle cost. By exploring the interplay between material science and pavement engineering, this Special Issue will consolidate innovative research and advancements in the material characterization, design methodologies, and predictive modeling of asphalt pavements. It aims to foster interdisciplinary collaboration and provide a platform for disseminating new findings that can enhance pavement engineering practices. The scope includes novel material characterization techniques, the influence of additives and modifiers on pavement performance, innovative sustainable design practices, and computational modeling applications to predict asphalt mixes and pavement behavior under various conditions. Article types may range from original research papers and review articles to case studies and technical notes. This Special Issue is designed to bring together cutting-edge developments in civil engineering materials and their applications, aligning with the journal's focus on advancing transportation infrastructure.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Weidong Cao
Dr. Jizhe Zhang
Guest Editors

Prof. Dr. Dedong Guo
Dr. Wengang Zhang
Guest Editor Assistants

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Keywords

asphalt
asphalt mix
asphalt pavement
pavement structure
material characterization
mix design
pavement design
modeling
simulation analysis

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 2467 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Rutting Resistance of Asphalt Improved by Nitrogen-Rich Soybean Biochar

by Cuicui Sun, Zhe Li, Junxia Yang, Xuanchen Zhou, Yanling Wu, Haocheng Zhang, Changhao Si, Xiaofeng Tian, Chiara Riccardi and Dedong Guo

Materials 2026, 19(17), 3639; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19173639 - 27 Aug 2026

Viewed by 276

Abstract

Asphalt pavements suffer from progressive deterioration during service life due to aging, while conventional polymer modifiers raise environmental concerns regarding recyclability and volatile organic compound emissions. Functionalized-biochar derived from renewable biomass offers a sustainable alternative through its tunable surface chemistry and porous structure. This study develops and evaluates a nitrogen-rich, surface-functionalized biochar as a multifunctional asphalt binder modifier and elucidates the synergistic roles of inherent nitrogen and post-synthetic functionalization in governing binder performance. To this end, soybean powder was pyrolyzed to prepare the biochar precursor, which was subsequently characterized to determine its suitable pyrolysis temperature and surface properties. These analyses identified 300 °C as the preferable pyrolysis temperature within the tested range of 200–500 °C, maximizing biochar yield and achieving favorable surface physicochemical properties including the iodine adsorption value, oil absorption value, surface functional groups and pore morphology. To improve surface functionality, the biochar underwent a two-step modification: nitric acid oxidation followed by hydroxymethylation, hereinafter referred to as functionalized-biochar. The influence of functionalized-biochar content on asphalt binder performance was evaluated across dosages of 10–20 wt%, and 15 wt% was identified as the recommended content. Asphalt binder modified with 15 wt% functionalized-biochar exhibited improved high-temperature performance, as evidenced by enhanced rutting resistance factor G*/sin δ values obtained from dynamic shear rheometer testing. Aging resistance also improved, reflected in a lower complex modulus aging index and a higher phase angle aging index. At 15 wt% dosage, the softening point increased by 6 °C, and ductility rose by 10.6 cm relative to the base asphalt (1.9 cm), corresponding to a 557.9% improvement. Penetration declined by 17%, while the complex modulus aging index decreased from 3.44 to 1.68. Notably, the experimental program in this study was limited to binder-scale characterization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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16 pages, 10833 KB

Open AccessArticle

Morphology Comparison of Different Mineral Coarse Aggregates Produced from Two Typical Crushers

by Saisai Zhang, Shan Li, Ziyu Zhao and Zhengwei Yang

Materials 2026, 19(14), 2972; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19142972 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 326

Abstract

Morphological characteristics of coarse aggregates, namely shape, angularity and surface texture, are closely related to rock mineral compositions and crushing mechanisms. Aggregates with different mineral compositions should be crushed using a suitable crusher. To explore the influence of mineral and crusher types on aggregate morphology, this study investigated the effect of the mineral compositions and crushing operations on the morphologies of coarse aggregates. Six types of major rock-forming minerals (i.e., quartz, amphibole, potassium feldspar, sodium feldspar, calcite and pyroxene) were selected and two typical crushers (i.e., jaw crusher and impact crusher) were used. The morphology parameters (i.e., angularity, texture, sphericity and F&E) of coarse aggregates were measured using the Aggregate Image Measurement SystemII (AIMSII). Further, the morphologies of different aggregates produced by two crushers were compared. The results showed that the angularity values of some aggregates crushed by a jaw crusher (average 3451) were bigger than those by an impact crusher (average 3067) and the angularity of the harder mineral was less affected by the crusher. For surface texture, there was no significant difference between these two crushers, with average texture index of 333.83 for the impact crusher and 332.67 for the jaw crusher, indicating that the surface texture of aggregates was mainly affected by their compositions and barely influenced by the crushing operations. The shape results indicated that the impact crusher produced more cubical aggregate particles compared to the jaw crusher, with average sphericity of 0.666 versus 0.607, whereas the jaw crusher produced aggregates with more elongated or flat particles, with an average F and E index of 3.331 versus 2.726. This study fills the research gap that few previous investigations focused on—the crushing morphology of single mineral aggregates—and the findings help us to understand the effect of the mineral compositions and crushing operations on the morphologies of coarse aggregates, which in turn guides the selection of suitable crushers for different minerals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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16 pages, 16141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Zinc Diethyldithiocarbamate (ZDC) on Rheological Behavior and Aging Resistance of SBS-Modified Asphalt

by Zhenshi Zhong, Shi Xu, Shichao Liang, Xiongjiang Wang, Yongping Hu, Georgios Pipintakos, Shisong Ren, Quantao Liu and Shaopeng Wu

Materials 2026, 19(13), 2893; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19132893 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 410

Abstract

Aging of Styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS)-modified asphalt accelerates the degradation of both the SBS polymer network and asphalt components, resulting in deterioration of the durability of asphalt concrete. This study investigates the use of zinc diethyldithiocarbamate (ZDC), a multifunctional antioxidant, in SBS-modified asphalt to improve its aging resistance. Physical property tests, dynamic rheological analysis, multiple stress creep recovery (MSCR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) assays were conducted to evaluate the rheological and chemical properties of asphalt binders before and after thermo-oxidative and UV aging. The results indicate that the incorporation of ZDC improved the deformation resistance and elastic recovery of SBS-modified asphalt. After aging, the ZDC/SBS composite-modified asphalt exhibited lower performance change rate than conventional SBS-modified asphalt, indicating enhanced resistance to permanent deformation and aging-induced damage. FTIR analysis demonstrated that ZDC effectively inhibited the formation of oxygen-containing functional groups during aging, suggesting suppressed oxidative reactions within the asphalt binder. The 5% ZDC dosage reduces the carbonyl index of SBS-modified asphalt by 36.48% after thermo-oxidative aging, and by 21.89% after UV aging, showing a stronger chemical inhibition effect on thermo-oxidative reactions. From the perspective of rheological performance stability, ZDC lowers the variation amplitude of non-recoverable creep compliance by 35.32% before and after thermo-oxidative aging and 41.46% before and after UV aging, and delivers a more prominent mitigating effect on property fluctuations triggered by UV aging. This indicates that ZDC exerts differentiated anti-aging mechanisms on thermo-oxidative and UV aging, with considerable potential to improve the comprehensive aging resistance of polymer-modified asphalt binders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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24 pages, 5060 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Short-Term PAV and Conventional Short-Term Aging Protocols for Thermoplastic-Modified Asphalt Binders

by Syed Khaliq Shah, Abdullah I. Almansour, Ying Gao and Muhammad Zubair

Materials 2026, 19(10), 2061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19102061 - 14 May 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 620

Abstract

Standard laboratory protocols for simulating short-term asphalt aging, including the Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT) and Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test (RTFOT), are widely adopted but frequently lack sensitivity to the distinct thermo-oxidative kinetics of high-viscosity and polymer-modified systems. This study evaluates a severity-graded aging matrix incorporating the Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) at variable durations (2, 5, and 10 h at 163 °C/2.1 MPa) as a potential alternative to conventional thin-film methods. Three binder systems BA-70 (PG 64-22), SBS-modified, and compatibilized functional thermoplastic (CFT)-modified asphalt were subjected to TFOT, RTFOT, and PAV variants. Comprehensive rheological characterization (DSR frequency/temperature sweeps, rutting parameter, MSCR) and SARA fractionation were employed to quantify oxidative stiffening, permanent deformation resistance, and compositional evolution. An Aging Severity Index (ASI) was developed to normalize multi-parameter responses and establish quantitative protocol equivalence thresholds. BA and SBS-modified binders exhibited pronounced protocol-dependent stiffening, with PAV-5h vs. RTFOT ASI gaps of 30.0% and 33.0%, respectively, confirming distinct aging severity under the tested conditions. Conversely, the CFT-modified binder demonstrated a compressed aging signature, maintaining stable complex modulus, minimal non-recoverable compliance escalation, and near-complete elastic recovery across all protocols. The ASI gap between PAV-5h and RTFOT for CFT was 6.0%, falling within the pre-defined ≤7% equivalence threshold established from combined rheological test uncertainty, specification-aligned engineering tolerance, and empirical gap clustering. SARA analysis corroborated these findings, showing CFT retained higher aromatic/resin fractions while limiting asphaltene accumulation compared to BA-70 and SBS. Importantly, the observed interchangeability between PAV-5h and RTFOT is strictly limited to the specific CFT-modified binder formulation tested under laboratory conditions. Broader specification adoption requires targeted validation across diverse modifier chemistries, dosages, and field-aged binders before generalization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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15 pages, 2851 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Dosage for Asphalt Volatile Harmful Gas Inhibitor Using Multi-Response Satisfaction Function and Nonlinear Regression

by Zhiye Liu, Xiaoyu Ren, Wenyao Du, Qinghang Li, Dedong Guo, Meng Xu, Wei Lu, Chiara Riccardi, Mengchen Li and Zouwei Zhong

Materials 2026, 19(9), 1871; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19091871 - 1 May 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 618

Abstract

To achieve synergistic, efficient degradation of volatile, harmful gases in asphalt and to scientifically quantify inhibitor dosage, this study proposes a dosage optimization method that integrates nonlinear regression with a multi-response satisfaction function. Focusing on a proprietary composite volatile gas suppressant, we systematically measured the concentration trends of ammonia, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide emitted from three asphalt systems: base asphalt, SBS modified asphalt (Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene modified asphalt), and rubber modified asphalt under different suppressant dosages (0%, 0.02%, 0.04%, 0.06%, 0.08%, and 0.10%). First, high-precision prediction models (R² > 0.95) were established using nonlinear regression to relate different inhibitor dosages to corresponding gas concentrations. Based on a satisfaction function, the multi-objective degradation effects were normalized into a comprehensive satisfaction index, and the optimal dosage was then determined. The results indicate: (1) the constructed models can accurately predict the concentrations of volatile harmful gases at various dosages; (2) the predicted optimal blending ratios vary by asphalt type, specifically 0.082% for base asphalt, 0.079% for SBS modified asphalt, and 0.080% for rubber modified asphalt; and (3) at the optimal blending ratios, all four gases achieve high and balanced degradation levels, resulting in the best overall degradation performance. At the same time, road performance tests confirmed that this blending ratio has no significant negative impact on the high-temperature and low-temperature stability or water stability of the asphalt mixture. Compared with traditional single-factor empirical methods, this approach represents a methodological upgrade from qualitative description to quantitative prediction, and from single-objective comparison to multi-objective synergistic optimization, providing data and theoretical support for the precise, efficient, and engineering-applicable use of asphalt volatile gas inhibitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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28 pages, 8650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mesoscale Steady-State Dynamics Modeling and Parametric Analysis of the Viscoelastic Response of Asphalt-Bonded Calcareous Sand

by Linyu Xie, Bowen Pang, Peng Cao, Jianru Wang and Zhifei Tan

Materials 2026, 19(6), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19061194 - 18 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 595

Abstract

Due to the complex mesostructure of calcareous sand, accurately predicting the mechanical response of Asphalt-Bonded Calcareous Sand (ABCS) is extremely challenging. This study pioneers the development of a mesoscale model for ABCS that explicitly incorporates the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) via a random particle algorithm. To overcome the efficiency bottlenecks of traditional time-domain integration, this study establishes a mesoscale framework coupling a random polygonal aggregate algorithm with direct Steady-State Dynamics (SSD) analysis. A major advantage of this framework is its capacity for large-scale parametric sensitivity analysis; herein, 920 independent mesoscale models were generated and rapidly solved across the broadband frequency domain. The framework was rigorously validated, demonstrating high predictive accuracy for both the baseline calibration and an independent 12% asphalt content mixture (baseline R² = 0.99, MAPE = 6.94%; independent validation R² = 0.96, MAPE = 9.73%). Notably, the SSD approach completes calculations (10⁻³ to 10³ Hz) for 10 massive 300 mm RVEs in just 6.5 min. Leveraging this high-throughput capability, the extensive parametric analysis reveals that variations in maximum aggregate size negligibly impact the dynamic modulus under a constant volume fraction. Conversely, an optimal Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) thickness of ~75 µm was identified, representing a physical equilibrium between interfacial reinforcement and bulk binder cohesion. Furthermore, an analytical RVE size criterion of 1.7–5.3 times the maximum aggregate size is proposed to satisfy a 5% engineering error tolerance, providing a highly efficient numerical tool for the virtual mix design of reef pavements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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17 pages, 3088 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Evaluation of the Blending Between Virgin and Aged Aggregates in Hot-Mix Recycled Asphalt Mixtures

by Haoyang Zou, Yunlong Sui, Wei Lu, Teng Wang, Dedong Guo, Xupeng Sun and Zhiye Liu

Materials 2025, 18(23), 5439; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235439 - 2 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 791

Abstract

Severe asphalt ageing and the difficulty in dispersing agglomerated particles within reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) hinder the uniform blending of virgin and aged mineral aggregates during plant-mixed hot recycling, compromising the durability of the recycled asphalt mixture. To accurately quantify the degree of blending between virgin and aged aggregate during thermal recycling and to optimise the mix design and mixing process for thermally recycled asphalt mixtures, a test method has been proposed. This method comprises key steps, including the preparation of asphalt mixtures, separation of virgin and aged materials, separation of the binder from aggregate, and calculation of the blending degree. It analyses the impact of varying mixing conditions on the blending degree of virgin and aged aggregate during the thermal recycling process. The results indicate that complete homogenization of virgin and aged aggregates during mixing is unattainable, with blending efficiency ranging from 40% to 60%. Increasing the amount of RAP has a negligible effect on blending efficiency. Appropriate increases in the amount of rejuvenating agent, mixing temperature, mixing time, and asphalt content enhance blending efficiency by 10% to 30%. The mixing sequence where RAP is first blended with virgin aggregate before incorporating virgin asphalt further enhances the blending efficiency of virgin and aged aggregates by approximately 20%. However, mixing temperatures exceeding 160 °C and mixing times exceeding 270 s caused secondary ageing of the asphalt, adversely affecting the blending degree of virgin and aged aggregates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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18 pages, 1869 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Fatigue and Healing Characteristics of Steel Slag Asphalt Concrete

by Heng Yuan, Haofeng Zheng, Hao Huang and Liantong Mo

Materials 2025, 18(23), 5361; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235361 - 28 Nov 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 766

Abstract

The fatigue healing mechanisms of steel slag asphalt concrete remain unclear and involve complex influencing factors. When used as an asphalt pavement material in actual road engineering projects, there is a risk of significant deviations in fatigue life predictions and insufficient stability in long-term service performance. In this study, traditional diabase asphalt concrete was used as a reference. Mix design was carried out for various steel slag asphalt mixtures, where steel slag coarse aggregates partially or entirely replaced diabase coarse aggregates. By using four-point bending fatigue testing, the fatigue life and stiffness modulus recovery capacity of steel slag asphalt concrete were analyzed after simulating low-temperature winter fatigue damage followed by healing at different temperatures (20 °C, 35 °C, 60 °C, and 75 °C). The test results indicated that the addition of steel slag coarse aggregates significantly affected the fatigue life and stiffness modulus of asphalt concrete. The use of coarser steel slag and autoclaved steel slag aggregates was beneficial for improving fatigue life. After experiencing low-temperature fatigue damage, increasing the healing temperature enhanced the modulus recovery effect but had a relatively low effect on life recovery. Overall, the stiffness modulus healing index of steel slag asphalt concrete exceeded 90%, while the fatigue life healing index ranged between 19% and 55%. After five fatigue healing cycles, the total fatigue life can be extended by 1.7 to 2.3 times. A life prediction model under multiple fatigue healing tests can be established using the stiffness modulus healing index and fatigue damage rate. Model predictions and measured results confirmed that the total fatigue healing life of asphalt concrete with the complete replacement of diabase coarse aggregates by steel slag coarse aggregates was greater than that of traditional diabase asphalt concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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16 pages, 4757 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of a Fatigue Failure Prediction Model for Bitumen Based on a Novel Accelerated Cyclic Shear Test

by Yankai Wen and Lin Wang

Materials 2025, 18(16), 3729; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18163729 - 8 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 922

Abstract

Fatigue failure of bitumen significantly influences the durability and service life of asphalt pavement. Current fatigue tests have drawbacks such as long durations, unrealistic traffic loading simulations, and difficulties of identifying failure mechanisms. Similarly, existing prediction models are often overly complex and inaccurate. To solve these drawbacks, in this study, a novel accelerated cyclic shear test in stress-controlled mode using a dynamic shear rheometer was introduced to evaluate the fatigue performance and reveal the fatigue failure mechanism of bitumen. The sigmoidal function was applied to develop a simplified fatigue failure prediction model for bitumen through stress and temperature shifts. The results demonstrate that bitumen’s response under the newly proposed loading method aligns consistently with behaviour characteristic of a plasticity-controlled failure mechanism. The variable parameter load ratio significantly influenced the bitumen’s time-to-failure, which increased as the load ratio decreased. Bitumen exhibited the longest time-to-failure when the load ratio (minimum stress/maximum stress) was 0.1. The developed model effectively predicted the time-to-failure of bitumen across different load ratios and under various temperature and stress conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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19 pages, 8420 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Epoxy Reclaimed Asphalt and Mixtures

by Junhao Tian, Dedong Guo, Qi Xu, Jiang Wu, Xupeng Sun, Li Wang and Chiara Riccardi

Materials 2025, 18(5), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18050982 - 23 Feb 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1489

Abstract

In order to improve the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) dosing and the road performance of recycled asphalt mixtures, this study prepared epoxy recycled binder (ERB) and epoxy recycled mixtures (ERMs) by dosing epoxy asphalt, respectively. The rheological characteristics and microstructure of ERB were comprehensively analyzed using a dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), a bending beam rheometer (BBR), and fluorescence microscopy (FM). The road performance of ERM was evaluated by a four-point bending test, a rutting test, trabecular beam bending test, a freeze–thaw splitting test, an immersion Marshall test, and a uniaxial compression dynamic modulus test. Grey relational analysis (GRA) was used to quantify the correlation between the dosage of epoxy system and road performance indicators. The results show that, after the addition of the epoxy system, the high- and low-temperature rheological properties of ERB were improved by 458.3% and 97.9% compared with those of ordinary asphalt, and the high-temperature performance and fatigue performance of ERM were improved by 220.4% and 80.5% compared with SBS-modified asphalt mixtures. The dynamic modulus test showed that the dynamic modulus of ERM was positively correlated with the dosage of epoxy system. GRA showed that the dosage of epoxy system was most closely related to the fatigue performance of recycled mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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Review

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23 pages, 2250 KB

Open AccessReview

Multiscale Mechanisms and a Mechanism-Oriented Evaluation Framework for Warm-Mix Asphalt

by Xin Zhang, Ya Lu and Xinhai Liu

Materials 2026, 19(18), 3839; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19183839 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Warm-mix asphalt (WMA) reduces mixing and compaction temperatures through wax additives, chemical additives, and foaming techniques, but their dominant mechanisms, performance trade-offs, and evaluation priorities differ. This structured narrative review synthesizes evidence for Sasobit, Evotherm, and Advera as representative technologies across mixture, binder and mastic, interfacial and microstructural, and molecular scale. Sasobit-type wax additives improve construction-stage fluidity and high-temperature stability through viscosity–temperature regulation and wax crystallization, while low-temperature and fatigue risks require attention. Evotherm-type chemical additives enhance wetting and moisture resistance through surface-active adsorption, thin-film lubrication, and improved interfacial adhesion, with high-temperature shear resistance requiring verification. Advera-type zeolite foaming extends the compaction window through water release and microbubble formation, but residual moisture and wet-condition durability remain critical concerns. On this basis, technology-specific cross-scale evidence chains are established, and a mechanism-oriented evaluation framework is proposed, linking engineering scenarios, dominant mechanisms, reduced-temperature mix design feasibility, durability constraints, and applicability assessment. Mixture performance serves as the final criterion, while binder and interfacial evidence supports risk screening and molecular evidence provides mechanistic interpretation. The framework supports targeted material selection, experimental design, risk diagnosis, and process optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Characterization, Design and Modeling of Asphalt Pavements)

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