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Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control
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Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control

A special issue of Life (ISSN 2075-1729). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 April 2024) | Viewed by 27423

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Virginia Marugan-Hernandez

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms AL9 7TA, UK
Interests: apicomplexa; Coccidia; molecular parasitology; cell biology; vaccinology; immunology; in vitro models
Dr. Mariela L. Tomazic

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Instituto de Patobiología Veterinaria (IPVET), INTA-CONICET. Nicolás Repetto y De los Reseros s/n, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires 1686, Argentina
2. Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1053ABH, Argentina
Interests: Eimeria; bioinformatics; vaccine candidates; local producers; Apicomplexa; protozoa; parasitology; cellular biology and biotechnology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Eimeria is a large genus within the phylum Apicomplexa, with over 1800 species identified to date. Despite the exquisite host specificity of individual species, the genus as a whole has a hugely diverse host range and affects members of all vertebrate classes (but humans!). On many occasions, infections with Eimeria species lead to coccidiosis disease which, if uncontrolled, can result in mortality and severe morbidity. If parasites are only partially controlled, then milder disease is common with significant welfare and economic impact due to gut damage, malabsorption, and reduced weight and consequent production. In an ever-changing world, control of coccidiosis faces new challenges, due in particular to the global goal of reducing the use of chemicals for animal production within a ‘One Health’ context. In this Special Issue, we seek new research topics or review articles with the aim of providing alternatives and a broader view to current coccidiosis control, including research on novel compounds to prevent/treat coccidiosis in different animal species, identification of new vaccine antigens and adjuvants, vaccine delivery systems, immunology studies to reveal mechanisms of protection, animals or in vitro models for the study of the disease or novel compound testing, and genetic or epidemiological studies to better understand the implications of coccidiosis.

Dr. Virginia Marugan-Hernandez
Dr. Mariela L. Tomazic
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Eimeria species
  •  coccidiosis
  •  disease control
  •  chemoprophylaxis
  •  vaccination
  •  natural compounds
  •  novel antigens
  •  immunoprotection
  •  population genetics

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 1563 KiB  
Communication
The Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of Eimeria kongi (Apicomplexa: Coccidia)
by Yubo Shi, Sufang Fang, Xiaolong Gu, Chengyu Hao, Fangchen Du, Ping Cui and Xinming Tang
Life 2024, 14(6), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/life14060699 - 29 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1034
Abstract
Rabbit coccidiosis is caused by infection with one or, more commonly, several Eimeria species that parasitize the hepatobiliary ducts or intestinal epithelium of rabbits. Currently, there are eleven internationally recognized species of rabbit coccidia, with the complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes of six species [...] Read more.
Rabbit coccidiosis is caused by infection with one or, more commonly, several Eimeria species that parasitize the hepatobiliary ducts or intestinal epithelium of rabbits. Currently, there are eleven internationally recognized species of rabbit coccidia, with the complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes of six species commonly infecting rabbits having been sequenced and annotated. Eimeria kongi was initially discovered in 2011 and prompted a preliminary study on this species. Through traditional morphological analysis, E. kongi was identified as a novel species of rabbit coccidia. To further validate this classification, we sequenced and annotated its mitochondrial genome. The complete mt genome of E. kongi spans 6258 bp and comprises three cytochrome genes (cytb, cox1, cox3), fourteen gene fragments for the large subunit (LSU) rRNA, and nine gene fragments for the small subunit (SSU) rRNA, lacking transfer RNA (tRNA) genes. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial genome sequence of E. kongi revealed its clustering with six other species of rabbit coccidia into a monophyletic group. Additionally, E. irresidua and E. flavescens were grouped within the lineage lacking oocyst residuum, consistent with their morphological characteristics. Consistent with multiple molecular phylogenies, in this investigation, E. kongi was further confirmed as a new species of rabbit coccidia. Our research findings are of great significance for the classification of coccidia and for coccidiosis prevention and control in rabbits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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9 pages, 1187 KiB  
Communication
Interplay between Eimeria acervulina and Cryptosporidium parvum during In Vitro Infection of a Chicken Macrophage Cell Line (HD11)
by Shahinaz Taha, Tran Nguyen-Ho-Bao, Lisa Maxi Berberich, Sandra Gawlowska, Arwid Daugschies and Zaida Rentería-Solís
Life 2023, 13(6), 1267; https://doi.org/10.3390/life13061267 - 27 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2192
Abstract
Background: Eimeria acervulina is a frequent intestinal pathogen of chickens, causing economic impact on the poultry industry. Cryptosporidium parvum is a neglected parasite in chickens. However, because of its zoonotic potential, poultry cryptosporidiosis may pose a risk to public health. Little is known [...] Read more.
Background: Eimeria acervulina is a frequent intestinal pathogen of chickens, causing economic impact on the poultry industry. Cryptosporidium parvum is a neglected parasite in chickens. However, because of its zoonotic potential, poultry cryptosporidiosis may pose a risk to public health. Little is known about the parasite–host interactions during coinfection with both parasites. In this study, we investigated the possible interactions during in vitro coinfection of E. acervulina and C. parvum in a chicken macrophage cell line (HD11). Methods: HD11 cells were inoculated with E. acervulina and C. parvum sporozoites and incubated 2, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h post infection (hpi). Mono-infections for each parasite were also investigated. Real-time PCR was used to quantify parasite replication. Additionally, macrophage mRNA expression levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, iNOS, and IL-10 were measured. Results: For both parasites, multiplication was, in most groups, lower in the coinfection group (COIG) compared with mono-infections. However, at 6 hpi, the number of C. parvum copies was higher in co-infections. Intracellular replication started to decrease from 12 hpi onward, and it was almost undetectable by 48 hpi in all groups. Infections resulted in low expression of all cytokines, except at 48 hpi. Conclusions: Infection of avian macrophages with both E. acervulina and C. parvum seemed to hinder intracellular replication for both parasites in comparison to mono-infection. A clear reduction in intracellular parasites from 12 hpi onward details the important role potentially played by macrophages in host control of these parasites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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13 pages, 1701 KiB  
Article
Molecular Investigation of Eimeria Species in Broiler Farms in the Province of Vojvodina, Serbia
by Marko Pajić, Dalibor Todorović, Slobodan Knežević, Bojana Prunić, Maja Velhner, Dušica Ostojić Andrić and Zoran Stanimirovic
Life 2023, 13(4), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/life13041039 - 18 Apr 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2520
Abstract
Coccidiosis is a significant poultry disease caused by the Eimeria species. This study aims to determine the prevalence of Eimeria spp. on broiler farms in Vojvodina, along with the identification of parasite species, and assess the implemented biosecurity measures. The study was conducted [...] Read more.
Coccidiosis is a significant poultry disease caused by the Eimeria species. This study aims to determine the prevalence of Eimeria spp. on broiler farms in Vojvodina, along with the identification of parasite species, and assess the implemented biosecurity measures. The study was conducted on 100 broiler chicken farms (28 small-sized; 34 medium-sized; 38 large-sized farms) from June 2018 to December 2021. One pooled sample of faeces was collected from three to six-week-old chickens from each farm, and assessment of biosecurity measures was carried out using a questionnaire. Using the PCR method, DNA of Eimeria was found in 59 samples (59%), while 41 samples (41%) were negative. Four species of Eimeria were identified, and their prevalence was the following: E. acervulina (37%), E. maxima (17%), E. mitis (25%) and E. tenella (48%). A significant difference (p < 0.05) was established in the number of oocysts in flocks from small-sized farms compared to medium-sized farms. It was found that regular implementation of disinfection, disinsection and deratisation measures, as well as all the biosecurity measures, can significantly reduce the occurrence of coccidiosis. These results will help to develop better strategies for the control and prevention of coccidiosis on farms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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23 pages, 3394 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Anticoccidial, and Anti-Inflammatory Study of Essential Oils of Oregano, Thyme, and Sage from Epirus, Greece
by Erasmia Sidiropoulou, Virginia Marugán-Hernández, Ioannis Skoufos, Ilias Giannenas, Eleftherios Bonos, Kensilandia Aguiar-Martins, Diamanto Lazari, Theodora Papagrigoriou, Konstantina Fotou, Katerina Grigoriadou, Damer P. Blake and Athina Tzora
Life 2022, 12(11), 1783; https://doi.org/10.3390/life12111783 - 4 Nov 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4162
Abstract
Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, Thymus vulgaris, and Salvia fructicosa are aromatic plants commonly found in Mediterranean countries and are traditionally used in Greece as a remedy for humans, since they are well known as potent antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory agents. Essential oils (EOs) [...] Read more.
Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, Thymus vulgaris, and Salvia fructicosa are aromatic plants commonly found in Mediterranean countries and are traditionally used in Greece as a remedy for humans, since they are well known as potent antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory agents. Essential oils (EOs) derived from plants cultivated in the mountainous region of Epirus, Greece, were investigated for their inhibitory activity against key microorganisms with relevance to avian health, while also assessing their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. The total phenolic content (TPC) of the EOs was estimated according to the Folin–Ciocalteu method, while the antioxidant capacity was tested through the EOs’ ability to scavenge free radicals by means of the DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays. Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects were examined by the agar disc diffusion method and the lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibition test, respectively. Furthermore, the EOs’ ability to inhibit the invasion of sporozoites of Eimeria tenella (Wisconsin strain) along with any toxic effects were assayed in Madin–Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells. The antioxidant activity of the EOs was observed in descending order: oregano > thyme > sage. The antimicrobial effects of thyme and oregano were equivalent and higher than that of sage, while the anti-inflammatory effect of thyme was higher compared to both sage and oregano. The intracellular invasion of sporozoites was evaluated by the detection of E. tenella DNA by qPCR from cell monolayers harvested at 2 and 24 h post-infection. Parasite invasion was inhibited by the addition of oregano essential oil at the concentration of 100 μg/mL by 83% or 93% after 2 or 24 h, respectively, and was higher compared to the addition of thyme and sage, which had similar effects, but at a less intensive level. The cytotoxic assessment of all three essential oils revealed that they had no effect on MDBK cells compared to dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), used as the control substance. The supplementation of oregano, thyme, and sage essential oils had a potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticoccidial in vitro effect that is comparable to synthetic substances or approved drugs, justifying the need for further evaluation by in vivo studies in broilers reared in the absence of antimicrobial and anticoccidial drugs or synthetic antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory compounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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12 pages, 14680 KiB  
Article
Molecular and Morphological Characterization of Eimeria crandallis Isolated from Deer (Cervidae) in Different Captive Animals
by Mian Abdul Hafeez, Adeel Sattar, Kiran Khalid, Abdur Rauf Khalid, Muhammad Shahid Mahmood, Muhammad Tahir Aleem, Kamran Ashraf, Faiza Aslam, Abdulaziz Alouffi, Aymen Mohammed, Mashal M. Almutairi and Muhammad Ikram ul Haq
Life 2022, 12(10), 1621; https://doi.org/10.3390/life12101621 - 17 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4938
Abstract
Coccidiosis is a protozoan disease that is characterized by diffuse diarrhea, dehydration, emaciation accompanied by moderate morbidity and mild mortality in animals and birds. The current study targeted the molecular characterization of Eimeria isolates in captive deer from different localities in Lahore. The [...] Read more.
Coccidiosis is a protozoan disease that is characterized by diffuse diarrhea, dehydration, emaciation accompanied by moderate morbidity and mild mortality in animals and birds. The current study targeted the molecular characterization of Eimeria isolates in captive deer from different localities in Lahore. The host species was the Cervidae family, such as Hog deer (Axis porcinus) and Punjab urial (Ovis aries vignei). The Eimeria crandallis was isolated from zoo animals. The DNA was extracted from oocysts and amplified by using reported oligonucleotide primers that exhibited the 809 bp product. These were analyzed by using the small subunit 18S rRNA gene-based evolutionary relationship with 36 other Eimeria species reported in caprine, cervinae, bovines, avians, and rodents. Light microscopic examination exhibited 3.29% (7/213) Eimeria-positive fecal samples with morphological features, including sub-spherical forms, the presence of micropyle with polar cap, and oocysts diameters (μm) ranging from 24.32 ± 1.61 to 18.94 ± 1.51. The phylogenetic tree constitutes four distinct clusters with relatively higher values. The evolutionary network showed that sequences were clustered in the monophyletic group of Eimeria species reported in caprine and cervinae. The nucleotide and amino acid sequence similarity matrix analysis exhibited 99.5–99.9% identity of the study isolates with Eimeria crandallis (AF336339). This study provides relevant baseline data to develop strategic control measures for coccidiosis in zoo animals. However, further investigations are required to place the hog deer and Punjab urial-derived E. crandallis into the caprine-originated cluster. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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18 pages, 4831 KiB  
Article
Efficacy of Ficus sycomorus (Sycamore Fig) Extract on Intestinal Coccidiosis in Experimentally Infected Rabbits
by Ahmed Dawod, Said Fathalla, Hesham R. El-Seedi, Mohamed A. Hammad, Noha Osman, Nagwa Abosheriba, Anis Anis, Awad A. Shehata and Ahmed Elkhatam
Life 2022, 12(6), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/life12060917 - 18 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3290
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of the Ficus sycomorus extract on Eimeria intestinalis in experimentally infected rabbits. For this purpose, forty male 30-day-old rabbits (Blanc de Bouscat) were divided into four groups (n = 10 in each [...] Read more.
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of the Ficus sycomorus extract on Eimeria intestinalis in experimentally infected rabbits. For this purpose, forty male 30-day-old rabbits (Blanc de Bouscat) were divided into four groups (n = 10 in each group). Rabbits kept in the first group served as negative control (non-treated-non-infected). Rabbits kept in the second, third, and fourth groups were challenged at 10 weeks old with 3 × 104E. intestinalis sporulated oocysts. The third and fourth groups were treated orally with diclazuril 10% (0.05 mg/kg body weight) and F. sycomorus (100 mg/Kg) for three consecutive days, respectively. The efficacy was assessed based on the growth performance parameters, clinical symptoms, oocyst shedding, histopathological findings, and hematological parameters for 16 days post challenge. The study revealed that rabbits treated with F. sycomorus methanolic extract and diclazuril showed mild clinical symptoms with a significant decrease in oocyst shedding compared with the positive control. Moreover, the diclazuril-treated group showed the highest leukocytic count and the lowest monocytes percentage compared with other groups. Furthermore, the lowest lymphocytes percentage was recorded in the control positive group. Histopathologically, moderate coccidia infestation in the intestinal mucosa and moderate hydropic degeneration of hepatocytes were observed in the diclazuril treated group compared with the negative control. However, mild coccidia infestation in the intestinal mucosa and slight coagulative necrosis of hepatocytes was found in the F. sycomorus treated group. In conclusion, F. sycomorus methanolic extract had promising effects on the live performance, oocyst count, and blood variables, while it possesses adverse consequences on the hepatic tissues. Further studies are required to optimize the dose and extraction method to mitigate its side effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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17 pages, 1240 KiB  
Article
Use of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles as Anticoccidial Agents in Broiler Chickens along with Its Impact on Growth Performance, Antioxidant Status and Hematobiochemical Profile
by Zeynab Khamis El-Maddawy, Abd El-salam Fawzy El-sawy, Neveen Ragab Ashoura, Salama Mostafa Aboelenin, Mohamed Mohamed Soliman, Hany Fawzy Ellakany, Ahmed Ragab Elbestawy and Nahed Ahmed El-Shall
Life 2022, 12(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/life12010074 - 5 Jan 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3342
Abstract
The impact of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) on the pathogenesis of coccidiosis in broiler chickens was tested. A total of 160 1-day-old broiler chicks (Ross 308) were randomly allocated into 4 groups (n = 40). Group 1: unchallenged, unmedicated; Group 2: challenged, unmedicated; [...] Read more.
The impact of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) on the pathogenesis of coccidiosis in broiler chickens was tested. A total of 160 1-day-old broiler chicks (Ross 308) were randomly allocated into 4 groups (n = 40). Group 1: unchallenged, unmedicated; Group 2: challenged, unmedicated; Group 3: challenged, supplemented with diclazuril (1 ppm); Group 4: challenged, supplemented with ZnO-NPs (20 ppm). Mixed Eimeria species (E. maxima, E. acervulina, E. mivati, and E. tenella) of a commercial coccidial vaccine (FORTEGRA®) were used to perform the coccidial challenge by 15× of its vaccinal dose on the 14th day of age. Diclazuril and ZnO-NPs supplementation in Group 3 and 4, respectively, reduced the mortality rate due to coccidial challenge to 5.8% compared to 11.9% in Group 2. The growth performance was improved by ZnO-NPs in coccidiosis-infected group (p ≤ 0.05) compared to Group 2 and was comparable to that of Group 3 (p ≥ 0.05). The average oocyst count was lower in Groups 3 and 4 (7.8 × 103 and 14.3 × 103, respectively) than in Group 2 (67 × 103 oocysts). Group 3 had a decreased gross lesion score in duodenum and caecum (p ≤ 0.05) as well as jujenum and ileum (p ≥ 0.05) compared to Group 2; while the average lesion scores of all intestinal parts in Group 4 were significantly decreased (p ≤ 0.05). However, diclazuril was superior to ZnO-NPs in reducing caecal lesion score (p ≤ 0.05). Plasma carotenoids levels were increased by diclazuril (p ≥ 0.05) and ZnO-NPs (p ≤ 0.05) supplementation compared to Group 2. Oxidative stress appeared on the fourth week post-challenge (pc) in Group 2 (p ≤ 0.05) compared to Group 1, while the dietary supplementation with either diclazuril or ZnO-NPs numerically decreased Malondialdhyde (p ≥ 0.05) and statistically increased antioxidant activity (p ≤ 0.05). Both medications significantly improved the PCV%, Hb% and RBCs count on the 6th-day and 4th-week pc (p ≤ 0.05) compared to Group 2, though this improvement was higher significantly in Group 4 than Group 3 on the 6th day pc (p ≤ 0.05). Neither coccidial challenge nor medications had an impact on the total WBCs count as well as organ index, except Bursa of fabricious index that significantly improved by ZnO-NPs on the 4th-week pc compared to Group 2. Coccidial challenge reduced total protein and globulin levels and increased the serum alanine aminotransferase, serum cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein levels (p ≤ 0.05) compared to Group 1, while those of both medicated groups (Group 3 and 4) were comparable to Group 1 (p ≥ 0.05). In conclusion, ZnO-NPs were found to be as effective as diclazuril against coccidiosis. However, further research is needed to fully comprehend its anticoccidial mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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Review

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22 pages, 1938 KiB  
Review
What Do We Know about Surface Proteins of Chicken Parasites Eimeria?
by Jesica Daiana Britez, Anabel Elisa Rodriguez, Lucía Di Ciaccio, Virginia Marugán-Hernandez and Mariela Luján Tomazic
Life 2023, 13(6), 1295; https://doi.org/10.3390/life13061295 - 31 May 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3900
Abstract
Poultry is the first source of animal protein for human consumption. In a changing world, this sector is facing new challenges, such as a projected increase in demand, higher standards of food quality and safety, and reduction of environmental impact. Chicken coccidiosis is [...] Read more.
Poultry is the first source of animal protein for human consumption. In a changing world, this sector is facing new challenges, such as a projected increase in demand, higher standards of food quality and safety, and reduction of environmental impact. Chicken coccidiosis is a highly widespread enteric disease caused by Eimeria spp. which causes significant economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide; however, the impact on family poultry holders or backyard production—which plays a key role in food security in small communities and involves mainly rural women—has been little explored. Coccidiosis disease is controlled by good husbandry measures, chemoprophylaxis, and/or live vaccination. The first live vaccines against chicken coccidiosis were developed in the 1950s; however, after more than seven decades, none has reached the market. Current limitations on their use have led to research in next-generation vaccines based on recombinant or live-vectored vaccines. Next-generation vaccines are required to control this complex parasitic disease, and for this purpose, protective antigens need to be identified. In this review, we have scrutinised surface proteins identified so far in Eimeria spp. affecting chickens. Most of these surface proteins are anchored to the parasite membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) molecule. The biosynthesis of GPIs, as well as the role of currently identified surface proteins and interest as vaccine candidates has been summarised. The potential role of surface proteins in drug resistance and immune escape and how these could limit the efficacy of control strategies was also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eimeria and the Future of Coccidiosis Control)
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