Journal of Marine Science and Engineering

Research

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36 pages, 15998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modular and Scalable Approach to Hybrid Battery and Converter Integration for Full-Electric Waterborne Transport

by Ramon Lopez-Erauskin, Argiñe Alacano, Aitor Lizeaga, Giuseppe Guidi, Olve Mo, Amaia Lopez-de-Heredia and Mikel Alzuri

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010120 - 11 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1148

Abstract

This paper presents a flexible and scalable battery system for maritime transportation, integrating modular converters and hybrid battery technologies that are effectively implemented in real-world scenarios. The proposed system is realized with modular DC-DC converters, which do not require complex design and control [...] Read more.

This paper presents a flexible and scalable battery system for maritime transportation, integrating modular converters and hybrid battery technologies that are effectively implemented in real-world scenarios. The proposed system is realized with modular DC-DC converters, which do not require complex design and control or a high number of components and combine high-power (HP) and high-energy (HE) battery cells to optimize the energy and power requirements of vessel operations without oversizing the energy storage system. Moreover, the modular design ensures flexibility and scalability, allowing for easy adaptation to varying operational demands. In particular, the system topology, control mechanisms, and communication protocols are explained in this paper. The concept has been validated through simulations and real-scale laboratory tests, demonstrating its effectiveness. Key results highlight the system’s ability to maintain the DC bus voltage while operating at high efficiency (ranging from 97% to 98%) under different load conditions, supported by reliable and demanding real-time communication using the EtherCAT standard. This real-time capability has been validated, and related results are presented in this paper, showing a synchronization accuracy below 200 ns between two modules and a stable control at a cycle time of 400 µs. This approach offers a promising solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the maritime industry, aligning with global sustainability goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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37 pages, 241072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Impact of Blending Dissociated Methanol Gas on the Performance and Emissions of Marine Medium-Speed Methanol Engines

by Xiaoyu Liu, Jie Zhu, Zhongcheng Wang, Zihan Wang, Zihao Zhao, Wenhua Wang and Haiping Cai

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010007 - 24 Dec 2024

Viewed by 611

Abstract

This study conducts a detailed analysis of the mixed combustion of dissociated methanol gas (DMG) and methanol in a marine medium-speed methanol engine through numerical simulation methods. The research focuses on the impact of partially replacing methanol with DMG on engine combustion characteristics [...] Read more.

This study conducts a detailed analysis of the mixed combustion of dissociated methanol gas (DMG) and methanol in a marine medium-speed methanol engine through numerical simulation methods. The research focuses on the impact of partially replacing methanol with DMG on engine combustion characteristics and emissions under both stoichiometric and lean-burn conditions. Employing the MAN L23/30H diesel engine as the experimental model, direct injection of DMG is achieved by installing gas injectors on the cylinder head. Utilizing the CONVERGE software, we simulate the injection and combustion processes of methanol and DMG and subsequently analyze the effects of varying DMG blending ratios on in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, mean chamber temperature, as well as NOx, HC, CO, and soot emissions. The research findings indicate that, under stoichiometric combustion conditions at both rated and idle speeds, the incorporation of DMG leads to increases in the peak in-cylinder pressure, peak heat release rate, and peak in-cylinder temperature, with these peaks occurring earlier. Additionally, it is observed that emissions of HC, CO, and soot are reduced. Under lean combustion conditions at rated speed, in the absence of DMG blending, increasing the excess air ratio results in an initial increase followed by a decrease in both fuel-indicated and overall-indicated thermal efficiency. However, with the blending of DMG, these efficiencies improve as the excess air ratio increases. Notably, the highest efficiencies are achieved when the excess air ratio is 1.8 and the blending ratio of DMG is 30%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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22 pages, 14161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Parametric Study on Air Lubrication for Ship Energy Efficiency

by Raul Lima Portela Bispo, Jeferson Avila Souza, Jean-David Caprace, Juan Carlos Ordonez and Crístofer Hood Marques

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(12), 2309; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12122309 - 15 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1767

Abstract

With the new target set by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) of zero net emissions of atmospheric gases from maritime vessels by 2050, studies of methods that improve the efficiency of vessels have become highly relevant. One promising method is air injection, which [...] Read more.

With the new target set by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) of zero net emissions of atmospheric gases from maritime vessels by 2050, studies of methods that improve the efficiency of vessels have become highly relevant. One promising method is air injection, which creates a lubricating film between the hull and water, reducing the total resistance. Despite the potential of air injection, there is a lack of studies defining the correlation between key parameters (such as air layer thickness, injection angle, vessel speed, and the number of nozzles) in the method efficiency. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the method’s efficiency through a parametric analysis. The study utilized the OpenFOAM software to analyze the air injection method in the Duisburg Test Case (DTC) hull, a 1:59 scaled container ship. The numerical solution used finite volumes to discretize the conservation equations, RANS (Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) in the momentum equation, and

κ

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ω

SST in the turbulence model. The optimum configuration achieved 14.13% net power savings, while the worst configuration increased the power consumption instead. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed the relationship between parameters and effectiveness. Therefore, the results showed the importance of adjusting the method’s parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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35 pages, 12976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Methanol–Diesel Dual Fuel Engine at Different Altitudes

by Zhongcheng Wang, Zhu Jie and Xiaoyu Liu

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(12), 2210; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12122210 - 2 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1322

Abstract

Currently, in the two technological approaches for using diesel pilot injection to ignite methanol and partially substituting diesel fuel with methanol, neither can fully achieve carbon neutrality in the context of internal combustion engines. Compression-ignition direct-injection methanol marine engines exhibit significant application potential [...] Read more.

Currently, in the two technological approaches for using diesel pilot injection to ignite methanol and partially substituting diesel fuel with methanol, neither can fully achieve carbon neutrality in the context of internal combustion engines. Compression-ignition direct-injection methanol marine engines exhibit significant application potential because of their superior fuel economy and lower carbon emissions. However, the low cetane number of methanol, coupled with its high ignition temperature and latent heat of vaporization, poses challenges, especially amidst increasingly stringent marine emission regulations. It is imperative to comprehensively explore the impacts of the engine geometry, intake boundary conditions, and injection strategies on the engine performance. This paper first investigates the influence of the compression ratio on the engine performance, subsequently analyzes the effects of intake conditions on methanol ignition characteristics, and finally compares the combustion characteristics of the engine under different fuel injection timings. When the compression ratio is set at 13.5, only an injection timing of −30 °CA can initiate methanol compression ignition, but the combustion is not ideal. For compression ratios of 15.5 and 17.5, all the injection timings studied can ignite methanol. Reasonable increases in the intake pressure and intake temperature are beneficial for methanol compression ignition. However, when the intake temperature rises from 400 K to 500 K, a decrease in the thermal efficiency is observed. Particularly, at an injection timing of −30 °CA, both the peak cylinder pressure and peak cylinder temperature are higher, the ignition occurs earlier, the combustion process shifts forward, and the combustion efficiency and indicated thermal efficiency are at higher levels. Furthermore, the overall emissions of NO_X, HC, and CO are relatively low. Therefore, selecting an appropriate injection timing is crucial to facilitate the compression ignition and combustion of methanol under low-load conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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15 pages, 15181 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Characteristics of Corrugated Steel Inner Walls in Liquefied Natural Gas Ship Membrane Compartments

by Fengming Du, Yuhong Zhang, Zetian Mi and Pan Gao

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(11), 1987; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12111987 - 4 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 892

Abstract

Under high sea conditions, liquefied natural gas (LNG) ships undergo significant shaking, which can affect the deformation and stress levels in the membrane tank walls. In this work, the structural characteristics of the corrugated steel inner wall in LNG ship membrane tanks were [...] Read more.

Under high sea conditions, liquefied natural gas (LNG) ships undergo significant shaking, which can affect the deformation and stress levels in the membrane tank walls. In this work, the structural characteristics of the corrugated steel inner wall in LNG ship membrane tanks were examined, different finite element models were established, and the structural characteristics under normal conditions, high sea conditions, and defective conditions were evaluated. The results revealed that corrugated steel exhibited high stress and strain under high sea conditions, with early signs of initial yield. In the presence of defects, the corrugated steel strip experienced higher stress and strain under the same load. Particularly, at a pressure of 10 bar, the defective corrugated steel exhibited a 2.3% increase in maximum stress than the defect-free corrugated steel. Additionally, the incorporation of reinforcement into the corrugated plate significantly reduced its stress and strain. Under a pressure of 10 bar, the reinforced corrugated plate exhibited a maximum stress of 503 MPa, which was 5.1% lower than that of the non-reinforced corrugated plate. This study provides theoretical support and guidance for designing and optimizing the inner wall structure of LNG ship membrane tanks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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24 pages, 6257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Flow-Thermal Characteristics in Ship-Board Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

by Jiqiang Li, Yexun Ding, Tong Wu, Zhenyu Gong, Yong Fan, Haoran Ma, Jeong-Tae Kwon, Weixin Ni and Jichao Li

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(10), 1779; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12101779 - 7 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1469

Abstract

Hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a clean and reliable energy vector for decarbonization in the future. In the marine sector, marine solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) that employ hydrogen as an energy source have already been developed. In this study, a multi-channel plate-anode-loaded [...] Read more.

Hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a clean and reliable energy vector for decarbonization in the future. In the marine sector, marine solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) that employ hydrogen as an energy source have already been developed. In this study, a multi-channel plate-anode-loaded SOFC was taken as the research object. A three-dimensional steady-state computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model for anode-supported SOFC was established, which is based on the mass conservation, energy conservation, momentum conservation, electrochemical reactions, and charge transport equations, including detailed geometric shapes, model boundary condition settings, and the numerical methods employed. The polarization curves calculated from the numerical simulation were compared with experimental results from the literature to verify the model’s accuracy. The curved model was applied by enlarging the flow channels or adding blocks. Numerical calculations were employed to obtain the current density, temperature distribution, and component concentration distribution under the operating conditions of the SOFC. Subsequently, the distribution patterns of various physical parameters during the SOFC operation were analyzed. Compared to the classical model, the temperature of the curved model was reduced by 1.3%, and the velocities of the cathode and anode were increased by 4.9% and 5.0%, respectively, with a 2.42% enhancement in performance. The findings of this study provide robust support for research into and the application of marine SOFCs, and offer they insights into how we may achieving “dual carbon” goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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17 pages, 7125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Electric Power Stability and Efficiency Using an Integrated Control System for Refrigerated Containers

by Heemoon Kim

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(9), 1624; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12091624 - 12 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 977

Abstract

In this study, a method is proposed to minimize electrical load fluctuations and improve the efficiency of engine generator operation by managing refrigerated ship containers through an integrated control system. The proposed system actively controls the electrical load by assigning operational priorities based [...] Read more.

In this study, a method is proposed to minimize electrical load fluctuations and improve the efficiency of engine generator operation by managing refrigerated ship containers through an integrated control system. The proposed system actively controls the electrical load by assigning operational priorities based on cargo temperature deviations to existing independently operated refrigerated containers, ensuring that they operate only within the available power of the engine generator. As a result, the average specific fuel oil consumption can be reduced. A 70 h simulation of the refrigerated containers, a power system, and an integrated control system demonstrated in MATLAB/Simulink 2021b that the magnitude of electrical load fluctuations decreases from 37.6% to 9.6% of the engine generator’s rated power compared with the conventional operation of refrigerated containers. In addition, a 1.88% fuel saving is realized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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16 pages, 2202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Containment-Based Distributed Secondary Control for AC Shipboard Microgrids under General Noise

by Liangbin Wang, Fei Teng and Qi Xu

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(8), 1438; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12081438 - 20 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1178

Abstract

This paper investigates the secondary control problem of shipboard microgrids (SMGs) with a high percentage of new energy sources under general noise. Firstly, a polymorphic SMG model is constructed, which enables the software-defined functionality of the control strategy and allows heterogeneous distributed generators [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the secondary control problem of shipboard microgrids (SMGs) with a high percentage of new energy sources under general noise. Firstly, a polymorphic SMG model is constructed, which enables the software-defined functionality of the control strategy and allows heterogeneous distributed generators (DGs) in AC SMGs to exchange packets of different types. Secondly, due to the presence of highly dynamic and high-power loads in the SMGs, a containment-based distributed secondary control strategy is proposed to improve the flexibility of the DG voltage regulation. Then, considering the complexity and diversity of disturbances during ship navigation, general noise is introduced instead of white noise to describe various disturbances. Furthermore, based on the random differential equations (RDEs), the NOS stability of the proposed strategy is proved using Lyapunov theory, which proves the effectiveness of the containment-based distributed secondary control strategy under general noise. And, the containment error is obtained to prove that the voltage and frequency of the system converge to the convex hull spanned by the virtual leaders, ensuring the high quality of the power supply. Finally, the validity of the proposed containment-based strategy is verified by an AC SMG model with four DGs in three cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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16 pages, 4097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Effects on Performances and Emissions of a Large Marine Diesel Engine Partially Fuelled with Biodiesel B20 and Methanol

by Nicolae Adrian Visan, Dan Catalin Niculescu, Radu Ionescu, Ernst Dahlin, Magnus Eriksson and Radu Chiriac

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(6), 952; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12060952 - 5 Jun 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1554

Abstract

The impact of fossil fuel utilisation in different combustion systems on climate change due to greenhouse gas accumulation in the atmosphere is rather evident. A part of these gases comes from the large engines used for propulsion in marine applications. In the continuous [...] Read more.

The impact of fossil fuel utilisation in different combustion systems on climate change due to greenhouse gas accumulation in the atmosphere is rather evident. A part of these gases comes from the large engines used for propulsion in marine applications. In the continuous global effort made by engine manufacturers to mitigate this negative impact, one way is represented by the utilisation of alternative fuels such as biodiesel and methanol, based on dedicated research to fulfil the more stringent regulations concerning pollutant emissions issued by piston heat engines. In this study, a numerical investigation was conducted on a four-stroke large marine diesel engine (ALCO 16V 251C) at several engine speeds and full load conditions. Different blends of diesel–methanol and biodiesel B20–methanol with methanol mass fractions of 10% and 20% were considered for theoretical analysis in two techniques of methanol supply: direct injection mode of a blend of base fuel diesel/biodiesel B20 with methanol and injection of methanol after the intercooler, and direct injection of the base fuel. The results show that, if 10% in power loss can be acceptable, then for diesel–methanol 10%, in the direct injection technology, the NOx emission can be reduced up to 19%, but with a compromise of an 8% increase in SOOT emission, while for biodiesel B20–methanol 10%, with the same direct injection method, the NOx emissions increase by up to 58% with the benefit of reducing SOOT by up to 23% relative to the original diesel fuel operation. For a 20% methanol fraction in blend fuel, the drop in power is more than 10% regardless of the method of methanol supply and the base fuel, diesel, or B20 used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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Review

Jump to: Research

41 pages, 11608 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of LCA Studies on Marine Alternative Fuels: Fuels, Methodology, Case Studies, and Recommendations

by Yue Wang, Xiu Xiao and Yulong Ji

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13(2), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13020196 - 22 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2194

Abstract

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology can be used to quantitatively assess the greenhouse gas emissions of low- or zero-carbon marine alternative fuels throughout their life cycle (from well to wake) and is an important basis for ensuring a green energy transition in the [...] Read more.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology can be used to quantitatively assess the greenhouse gas emissions of low- or zero-carbon marine alternative fuels throughout their life cycle (from well to wake) and is an important basis for ensuring a green energy transition in the shipping industry. This paper first clarifies the trends and requirements of low-carbon development in shipping and introduces the major ship emission reduction technologies and evaluation methods. Next, the characteristics of various alternative marine fuels (i.e., LNG, hydrogen, methanol, ammonia, and biofuels) are comprehensively discussed and analyzed in terms of production, storage, transportation, and ship applications. In addition, this work provides a comprehensive overview of LCA methodology, including its relevant standards and assessment tools, and establishes a framework for LCA of marine alternative fuels. On this basis, a literature review of the current research on LCA of marine alternative fuels from the perspectives of carbon emissions, pollution emissions, and economics is presented. The case review covers 64 alternative-fueled ships and 12 groups of fleets operating in different countries and waters. Finally, this paper discusses the main shortcomings that exist in the current research and provides an outlook on the future development of LCA research of marine alternative fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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20 pages, 4616 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Impact of the Marine Salt Spray Environment on the Performance of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

by Shian Li, Jiakai Zhu, Guogang Yang and Qiuwan Shen

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13(1), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010172 - 19 Jan 2025

Viewed by 977

Abstract

With the escalating global demand for clean energy, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), as an efficient and environmentally friendly energy conversion device, has emerged as a pivotal component of new power systems, playing a crucial role in achieving global carbon emission [...] Read more.

With the escalating global demand for clean energy, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), as an efficient and environmentally friendly energy conversion device, has emerged as a pivotal component of new power systems, playing a crucial role in achieving global carbon emission reduction targets. At present, the application of PEMFC technology is gradually expanding to the shipping industry and other fields, indicating its potential role in the future transformation of the energy structure. This article focuses on the marine salt spray environment; summarizes the impact of salt ionic contamination on PEMFC performance in recent years; and mainly explores the influence mechanism of the internal components of PEMFC, including the bipolar plate, the gas diffusion layer, catalyst layer, and proton exchange membrane. In addition, this study analyzes and summarizes the polarization curve variations in the marine salt spray environment, as well as the recovery methods after contamination, in order to provide certain references of PEMFC research for marine application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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28 pages, 3599 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of the Regulatory Challenges and Opportunities for Maritime Small Modular Reactors in Republic of Korea

by Seon-Gon Kim, Sanghwan Kim, Jophous Mugabi and Jae-Ho Jeong

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(11), 1978; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12111978 - 2 Nov 2024

Viewed by 2790

Abstract

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) offer transformative potential for maritime propulsion by providing significant benefits such as reduced emissions, enhanced fuel efficiency, and greater operational autonomy. However, their integration into the maritime sector presents complex regulatory challenges due to the convergence of nuclear and [...] Read more.

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) offer transformative potential for maritime propulsion by providing significant benefits such as reduced emissions, enhanced fuel efficiency, and greater operational autonomy. However, their integration into the maritime sector presents complex regulatory challenges due to the convergence of nuclear and maritime laws. A unified, harmonized regulatory framework is essential to ensure safety, radioactive waste management, and accident prevention. While initiatives led by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and International Maritime Organization (IMO) are progressing, key gaps remain, particularly regarding maritime-specific risk assessments, emergency response protocols, and cross-border regulatory harmonization. Enhanced collaboration between regulatory bodies, pilot projects, and transparent engagement with stakeholders will be critical to refining safety protocols and accelerating regulatory alignment. Public acceptance remains a vital factor, requiring rigorous environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and transparent communication to build trust and align SMR-powered vessels with global sustainability objectives. While challenges persist, they also present opportunities for innovation and international cooperation. By addressing these regulatory and public acceptance challenges through coordinated efforts and policies, SMR propulsion can become a cornerstone of a more sustainable, efficient, and technologically advanced maritime sector. Successful deployment will position SMRs as a key component of the global energy transition, driving progress toward low-carbon shipping and a greener maritime industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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27 pages, 3653 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fundamental Understanding of Marine Applications of Molten Salt Reactors: Progress, Case Studies, and Safety

by Seongchul Park, Sanghwan Kim, Gazi A. K. M. Rafiqul Bari and Jae-Ho Jeong

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(10), 1835; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12101835 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 3438

Abstract

Marine sources contribute approximately 2% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions, with the shipping industry accounting for 87% of this total, making it the fifth-largest emitter globally. Environmental regulations by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), such as the MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention [...] Read more.

Marine sources contribute approximately 2% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions, with the shipping industry accounting for 87% of this total, making it the fifth-largest emitter globally. Environmental regulations by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), such as the MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) treaty, have driven the exploration of alternative green energy solutions, including nuclear-powered ships. These ships offer advantages like long operational periods without refueling and increased cargo space, with around 200 reactors already in use on naval vessels worldwide. Among advanced reactor concepts, the molten salt reactor (MSR) is particularly suited for marine applications due to its inherent safety features, compact design, high energy density, and potential to mitigate nuclear waste and proliferation concerns. However, MSR systems face significant challenges, including tritium production, corrosion issues, and complex behavior of volatile fission products. Understanding the impact of marine-induced motion on the thermal–hydraulic behavior of MSRs is crucial, as it can lead to transient design basis accident scenarios. Furthermore, the adoption of MSR technology in the shipping industry requires overcoming regulatory hurdles and achieving global consensus on safety and environmental standards. This review assesses the current progress, challenges, and technological readiness of MSRs for marine applications, highlighting future research directions. The overall technology readiness level (TRL) of MSRs is currently at 3. Achieving TRL 6 is essential for progress, with individual components needing TRLs of 4–8 for a demonstration reactor. Community Readiness Levels (CRLs) must also be addressed, focusing on public acceptance, safety, sustainability, and alignment with decarbonization goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for New (Clean) Energy Ships)

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