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Plant Microbe Interaction

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Biochemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2015) | Viewed by 124264

Special Issue Editor

Microbial Genetics, Institute of Applied Microbiology, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Interests: fungus-plant interaction; biotrophic fungi; smut fungi; host selection; symptom formation; comparative genomics; effector function
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microbes interact with plants at many different levels and plants have learned to deal with or even exploit the available microbes. While some microbes impact plant growth without entering the plant, many microbes do enter and spread in various plant tissues. In recent years, small proteinaecous effectors secreted by interacting microbes into plant tissues have emerged as a unifying theme. Effector discovery has been tremendously aided by the availability of next-generation sequencing techniques, which have also raised the analysis of the plant microbe interaction to a system-wide level. The system-wide approach also shows that plant growth and development is highly dependent on orchestrating the appropriate responses to different microbial interactors. The development and orchestration of plant responses have been refined through continuous selection pressure during plant and microbe evolution.

This Special Issue calls for review as well as original research articles that address the progress and current understanding of different aspects of the vast field of plant microbe interaction.

Prof. Dr. Jan Schirawski
Guest Editor

Prof. Dr. Jan Schirawski

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Keywords

  • mechanisms of biotrophy
  • endophytes
  • strategies of foliar pathogens
  • root colonizing microbes
  • rhizophere and plant development
  • regulation of plant defenses
  • functional elucidation of plant-microbe interactors
  • effects of microbes on plant development

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Published Papers (16 papers)

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3404 KiB  
Article
Transcriptomic Response to Nitric Oxide Treatment in Larix olgensis Henry
by Xiaoqing Hu, Jingli Yang and Chenghao Li
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(12), 28582-28597; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161226117 - 02 Dec 2015
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5240
Abstract
Larix olgensis Henry is an important coniferous species found in plantation forests in northeastern China, but it is vulnerable to pathogens. Nitric oxide (NO) is an important molecule involved in plant resistance to pathogens. To study the regulatory role of NO at the [...] Read more.
Larix olgensis Henry is an important coniferous species found in plantation forests in northeastern China, but it is vulnerable to pathogens. Nitric oxide (NO) is an important molecule involved in plant resistance to pathogens. To study the regulatory role of NO at the transcriptional level, we characterized the transcriptomic response of L. olgensis seedlings to sodium nitroprusside (SNP, NO donor) using Illumina sequencing and de novo transcriptome assembly. A significant number of putative metabolic pathways and functions associated with the unique sequences were identified. Genes related to plant pathogen infection (FLS2, WRKY33, MAPKKK, and PR1) were upregulated with SNP treatment. This report describes the potential contribution of NO to disease resistance in L. olgensis as induced by biotic stress. Our results provide a substantial contribution to the genomic and transcriptomic resources for L. olgensis, as well as expanding our understanding of the involvement of NO in defense responses at the transcriptional level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Identification of Pathogenicity-Related Genes in Biofilm-Defective Acidovorax citrulli by Transposon Tn5 Mutagenesis
by Jinyan Luo, Wen Qiu, Lei Chen, Syed Ishtiaq Anjum, Menghao Yu, Changlin Shan, Mehmoona Ilyas, Bin Li, Yanli Wang and Guochang Sun
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(12), 28050-28062; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161226076 - 25 Nov 2015
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6234
Abstract
Biofilm formation is important for virulence of a large number of plant pathogenic bacteria. Indeed, some virulence genes have been found to be involved in the formation of biofilm in bacterial fruit blotch pathogen Acidovorax citrulli. However, some virulent strains of A. [...] Read more.
Biofilm formation is important for virulence of a large number of plant pathogenic bacteria. Indeed, some virulence genes have been found to be involved in the formation of biofilm in bacterial fruit blotch pathogen Acidovorax citrulli. However, some virulent strains of A. citrulli were unable to format biofilm, indicating the complexity between biofilm formation and virulence. In this study, virulence-related genes were identified in the biofilm-defective strain A1 of A. citrulli by using Tn5 insertion, pathogenicity test, and high-efficiency thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR (hiTAIL-PCR). Results from this study indicated that 22 out of the obtained 301 mutants significantly decreased the virulence of strain A1 compared to the wild-type. Furthermore, sequence analysis indicated that the obtained 22 mutants were due to the insertion of Tn5 into eight genes, including Aave 4244 (cation diffusion facilitator family transporter), Aave 4286 (hypothetical protein), Aave 4189 (alpha/beta hydrolase fold), Aave 1911 (IMP dehydrogenase/GMP reductase domain), Aave 4383 (bacterial export proteins, family 1), Aave 4256 (Hsp70 protein), Aave 0003 (histidine kinase, DNA gyrase B, and HSP90-like ATPase), and Aave 2428 (pyridoxal-phosphate dependent enzyme). Furthermore, the growth of mutant Aave 2428 was unaffected and even increased by the change in incubation temperature, NaCl concentration and the pH of the LB broth, indicating that this gene may be directly involved in the bacterial virulence. Overall, the determination of the eight pathogenicity-related genes in strain A1 will be helpful to elucidate the pathogenesis of biofilm-defective A. citrulli. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Gossypium thurberi in Response to Verticillium dahliae Inoculation
by Weiping Fang, Deyi Xie, Heqin Zhu, Wu Li, Zhenzhen Xu, Lirong Yang, Zhifang Li, Li Sun, Jinxia Wang, Lihong Nie, Zhongjie Tang, Shuping Lv, Fu’an Zhao, Yao Sun, Yuanming Zhao, Jianan Hou and Xiaojie Yang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 25121-25140; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161025121 - 22 Oct 2015
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5561
Abstract
Verticillium wilt is threatening cotton productivity globally. This disease is caused by soil-borne Verticillium dahliae which directly infects cotton roots, and exclusively colonizes and occludes xylem vessels, finally resulting in necrosis, defoliation, and most severely, plant death. For the first time, iTRAQ (isobaric [...] Read more.
Verticillium wilt is threatening cotton productivity globally. This disease is caused by soil-borne Verticillium dahliae which directly infects cotton roots, and exclusively colonizes and occludes xylem vessels, finally resulting in necrosis, defoliation, and most severely, plant death. For the first time, iTRAQ (isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification) was applied to screen the differentially expressed proteins of Gossypium thurberi inoculated with V. dahliae. A total of 6533 proteins were identified from the roots of G. thurberi after inoculation with V. dahliae, and 396 showed up- and 279 down-regulated in comparison to a mock-inoculated roots. Of these identified proteins, the main functional groups were those involved in cell wall organization and reinforcement, disease-resistant chemicals of secondary metabolism, phytohormone signaling, pathogenesis-related proteins, and disease-resistant proteins. Physiological and biochemical analysis showed that peroxidase activity, which promotes the biosynthesis and accumulation of lignin, was induced early in the hypocotyl after inoculation with V. dahliae. Similarly, salicylic acid also accumulated significantly in hypocotyl of the seedlings after inoculation. These findings provide an important knowledge of the molecular events and regulatory networks occurring during G. thurberi-V. dahliae interaction, which may provide a foundation for breeding disease-resistance in cotton. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Reference Genes in the Pathosystem Phakopsora pachyrhizi/ Soybean Suitable for Normalization in Transcript Profiling
by Daniela Hirschburger, Manuel Müller, Ralf T. Voegele and Tobias Link
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 23057-23075; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160923057 - 23 Sep 2015
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6334
Abstract
Phakopsora pachyrhizi is a devastating pathogen on soybean, endangering soybean production worldwide. Use of Host Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) and the study of effector proteins could provide novel strategies for pathogen control. For both approaches quantification of transcript abundance by RT-qPCR is essential. [...] Read more.
Phakopsora pachyrhizi is a devastating pathogen on soybean, endangering soybean production worldwide. Use of Host Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) and the study of effector proteins could provide novel strategies for pathogen control. For both approaches quantification of transcript abundance by RT-qPCR is essential. Suitable stable reference genes for normalization are indispensable to obtain accurate RT-qPCR results. According to the Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments (MIQE) guidelines and using algorithms geNorm and NormFinder we tested candidate reference genes from P. pachyrhizi and Glycine max for their suitability in normalization of transcript levels throughout the infection process. For P. pachyrhizi we recommend a combination of CytB and PDK or GAPDH for in planta experiments. Gene expression during in vitro stages and over the whole infection process was found to be highly unstable. Here, RPS14 and UbcE2 are ranked best by geNorm and NormFinder. Alternatively CytB that has the smallest Cq range (Cq: quantification cycle) could be used. We recommend specification of gene expression relative to the germ tube stage rather than to the resting urediospore stage. For studies omitting the resting spore and the appressorium stages a combination of Elf3 and RPS9, or PKD and GAPDH should be used. For normalization of soybean genes during rust infection Ukn2 and cons7 are recommended. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Physcomitrella patens Activates Defense Responses against the Pathogen Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
by Guillermo Reboledo, Raquel Del Campo, Alfonso Alvarez, Marcos Montesano, Héctor Mara and Inés Ponce de León
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 22280-22298; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160922280 - 15 Sep 2015
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 8190
Abstract
The moss Physcomitrella patens is a suitable model plant to analyze the activation of defense mechanisms after pathogen assault. In this study, we show that Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolated from symptomatic citrus fruit infects P. patens and cause disease symptoms evidenced by browning and [...] Read more.
The moss Physcomitrella patens is a suitable model plant to analyze the activation of defense mechanisms after pathogen assault. In this study, we show that Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolated from symptomatic citrus fruit infects P. patens and cause disease symptoms evidenced by browning and maceration of tissues. After C. gloeosporioides infection, P. patens reinforces the cell wall by the incorporation of phenolic compounds and induces the expression of a Dirigent-protein-like encoding gene that could lead to the formation of lignin-like polymers. C. gloeosporioides-inoculated protonemal cells show cytoplasmic collapse, browning of chloroplasts and modifications of the cell wall. Chloroplasts relocate in cells of infected tissues toward the initially infected C. gloeosporioides cells. P. patens also induces the expression of the defense genes PAL and CHS after fungal colonization. P. patens reporter lines harboring the auxin-inducible promoter from soybean (GmGH3) fused to β-glucuronidase revealed an auxin response in protonemal tissues, cauloids and leaves of C. gloeosporioides-infected moss tissues, indicating the activation of auxin signaling. Thus, P. patens is an interesting plant to gain insight into defense mechanisms that have evolved in primitive land plants to cope with microbial pathogens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Size Does Matter: Staging of Silene latifolia Floral Buds for Transcriptome Studies
by Su San Toh and Michael H. Perlin
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 22027-22045; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160922027 - 11 Sep 2015
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4652
Abstract
Dioecious plants in the Caryophyllaceae family are susceptible to infection by members of the anthericolous smut fungi. In our studies of the Silene latifolia/Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae pathosystem, we were interested in characterizing the plant-pathogen interaction at the molecular level before and during teliosporogenesis. This [...] Read more.
Dioecious plants in the Caryophyllaceae family are susceptible to infection by members of the anthericolous smut fungi. In our studies of the Silene latifolia/Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae pathosystem, we were interested in characterizing the plant-pathogen interaction at the molecular level before and during teliosporogenesis. This takes place during floral bud development, and we hoped to capture the interaction by Illumina Next-Gen RNA-Sequencing. Using previous literature that documented the stages of the floral buds for S. latifolia, we examined the floral buds from plants grown and infected under growth chamber conditions, using the disserting microscope to determine the stage of floral buds based on the morphology. We compiled the information and determined the size of floral buds that correspond to the desired stages of development for tissue collection, for the purpose of RNA-sequencing. This offers a practical approach for researchers who require a large number of floral buds/tissue categorized by stages of development, ascertaining whether infected/uninfected buds are at comparable stages of development and whether this also holds true for male vs. female buds. We also document our experience in infecting the plants and some of the unusual morphologies we observed after infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Identification of Ramie Genes in Response to Pratylenchus coffeae Infection Challenge by Digital Gene Expression Analysis
by Yongting Yu, Liangbin Zeng, Zhun Yan, Touming Liu, Kai Sun, Taotao Zhu and Aiguo Zhu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 21989-22007; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160921989 - 11 Sep 2015
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5821
Abstract
Root lesion disease, caused by Pratylenchus coffeae, seriously impairs the growth and yield of ramie, an important natural fiber crop. The ramie defense mechanism against P. coffeae infection is poorly understood, which hinders efforts to improve resistance via breeding programs. In this [...] Read more.
Root lesion disease, caused by Pratylenchus coffeae, seriously impairs the growth and yield of ramie, an important natural fiber crop. The ramie defense mechanism against P. coffeae infection is poorly understood, which hinders efforts to improve resistance via breeding programs. In this study, the transcriptome of the resistant ramie cultivar Qingdaye was characterized using Illumina sequence technology. About 46.3 million clean pair end (PE) reads were generated and assembled into 40,826 unigenes with a mean length of 830 bp. Digital gene expression (DGE) analysis was performed on both the control roots (CK) and P. coffeae-challenged roots (CH), and the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. Approximately 10.16 and 8.07 million cDNA reads in the CK and CH cDNA libraries were sequenced, respectively. A total of 137 genes exhibited different transcript abundances between the two libraries. Among them, the expressions of 117 and 20 DEGs were up- and down-regulated in P. coffeae-challenged ramie, respectively. The expression patterns of 15 candidate genes determined by qRT-PCR confirmed the results of DGE analysis. Time-course expression profiles of eight defense-related genes in susceptible and resistant ramie cultivars were different after P. coffeae inoculation. The differential expression of protease inhibitors, pathogenesis-related proteins (PRs), and transcription factors in resistant and susceptible ramie during P. coffeae infection indicated that cystatin likely plays an important role in nematode resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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1506 KiB  
Article
Development of Ophiocordyceps sinensis through Plant-Mediated Interkingdom Host Colonization
by Wei Lei, Guren Zhang, Qingyun Peng and Xin Liu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(8), 17482-17493; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160817482 - 30 Jul 2015
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5582
Abstract
Ophiocordyceps sinensis is a well-known entomogenous and medicinal fungus. After its anamorphs parasitize the larvae of the genus Thitarodes, fruit-bodies may form to be used as medicine. However, its developmental mechanisms remain unknown. The distribution of O. sinensis was determined in different [...] Read more.
Ophiocordyceps sinensis is a well-known entomogenous and medicinal fungus. After its anamorphs parasitize the larvae of the genus Thitarodes, fruit-bodies may form to be used as medicine. However, its developmental mechanisms remain unknown. The distribution of O. sinensis was determined in different tissues of the Thitarodes larvae and the dominant plant species using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique, respectively. We found that more fungal material was located in plants than in larvae, especially in Ranunculus tanguticus. A considerable amount was detected in larval intestinal-wall and plant roots. It is suggested that plants are the potential hosts of O. sinensis, which modifies our understanding of the life cycle of O. sinensis and indicates that the phytophagous larvae may become infected as they feed. Our research may contribute to the study of systematic evolution and population ecology of O. sinensis, elucidate its developmental mechanism and promote sustainable harvesting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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3225 KiB  
Article
Effects of the Bradyrhizobium japonicum waaL (rfaL) Gene on Hydrophobicity, Motility, Stress Tolerance, and Symbiotic Relationship with Soybeans
by Jun-Gu Noh, Han-Eul Jeon, Jae-Seong So and Woo-Suk Chang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(8), 16778-16791; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160816778 - 23 Jul 2015
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6331
Abstract
We cloned and sequenced the waaL (rfaL) gene from Bradyrhizobium japonicum, which infects soybean and forms nitrogen-fixing nodules on soybean roots. waaL has been extensively studied in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) biosynthesis of enteric bacteria, but little is known about its [...] Read more.
We cloned and sequenced the waaL (rfaL) gene from Bradyrhizobium japonicum, which infects soybean and forms nitrogen-fixing nodules on soybean roots. waaL has been extensively studied in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) biosynthesis of enteric bacteria, but little is known about its function in (brady)rhizobial LPS architecture. To characterize its role as O-antigen ligase in the LPS biosynthesis pathway, we constructed a waaL knock-out mutant and its complemented strain named JS015 and CS015, respectively. LPS analysis showed that an LPS structure of JS015 is deficient in O-antigen as compared to that of the wild type and complemented strain CS015, suggesting that WaaL ligates the O-antigen to lipid A-core oligosaccharide to form a complete LPS. JS015 also revealed increased cell surface hydrophobicity, but it showed decreased motility in soft agar plates. In addition to the alteration in cell surface properties, disruption of the waaL gene caused increased sensitivity of JS015 to hydrogen peroxide, osmotic pressure, and novobiocin. Specifically, plant tests revealed that JS015 failed to nodulate the host plant soybean, indicating that the rhizobial waaL gene is responsible for the establishment of a symbiotic relationship between soybean and B. japonicum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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1679 KiB  
Article
Isolation and Heterologous Expression of a Polygalacturonase Produced by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Race 1 and 4
by Zhangyong Dong and Zhenzhong Wang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(4), 7595-7607; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16047595 - 03 Apr 2015
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6464
Abstract
Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (FOC) represents a significant threat to banana (Musa spp.) production. Musa AAB is susceptible to Race 1 (FOC1) and Race 4 (FOC4), while Cavendish Musa AAA is found to be resistant [...] Read more.
Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (FOC) represents a significant threat to banana (Musa spp.) production. Musa AAB is susceptible to Race 1 (FOC1) and Race 4 (FOC4), while Cavendish Musa AAA is found to be resistant to FOC1 but still susceptible to Race 4. A polygalacturonase (PGC3) was purified from the supernatant of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense race 4 (FOC4), which is the pathogen of Fusarium wilt. PGC3 had an apparent molecular weight of 45 kDa according to SDS-PAGE. The enzyme hydrolyzed polygalacturonic acid in an exo-manner, as demonstrated by analysis of degradation products. The Km and Vmax values of PGC3 from FOC4 were determined to be 0.70 mg·mL−1 and 101.01 Units·mg·protein−1·min−1, respectively. Two pgc3 genes encoding PGC3 from FOC4 and FOC1, both genes of 1368 bp in length encode 456 amino-acid residues with a predicted signal peptide sequence of 21 amino acids. There are 16 nucleotide sites difference between FOC4-pgc3 and FOC1-pgc3, only leading to four amino acid residues difference. In order to obtain adequate amounts of protein required for functional studies, two genes were cloned into the expression vector pPICZaA and then expressed in Pichia pastoris strains of SMD1168. The recombinant PGC3, r-FOC1-PGC3 and r-FOC4-PGC3, were expressed and purified as active proteins. The optimal PGC3 activity was observed at 50 °C and pH 4.5. Both recombinant PGC3 retained >40% activity at pH 3–7 and >50% activity in 10–50 °C. Both recombinant PGC3 proteins could induce a response but with different levels of tissue maceration and necrosis in banana plants. In sum, our results indicate that PGC3 is an exo-PG and can be produced with full function in P. pastoris. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Molecular Characterization and Functional Analysis of Three Pathogenesis-Related Cytochrome P450 Genes from Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Tylenchida: Aphelenchoidoidea)
by Xiao-Lu Xu, Xiao-Qin Wu, Jian-Ren Ye and Lin Huang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(3), 5216-5234; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16035216 - 06 Mar 2015
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6605
Abstract
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causal agent of pine wilt disease, causes huge economic losses in pine forests. The high expression of cytochrome P450 genes in B. xylophilus during infection in P. thunbergii indicated that these genes had a certain relationship with the pathogenic [...] Read more.
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causal agent of pine wilt disease, causes huge economic losses in pine forests. The high expression of cytochrome P450 genes in B. xylophilus during infection in P. thunbergii indicated that these genes had a certain relationship with the pathogenic process of B. xylophilus. Thus, we attempted to identify the molecular characterization and functions of cytochrome P450 genes in B. xylophilus. In this study, full-length cDNA of three cytochrome P450 genes, BxCYP33C9, BxCYP33C4 and BxCYP33D3 were first cloned from B. xylophilus using 3' and 5' RACE PCR amplification. Sequence analysis showed that all of them contained a highly-conserved cytochrome P450 domain. The characteristics of the three putative proteins were analyzed with bioinformatic methods. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to assess the functions of BxCYP33C9, BxCYP33C4 and BxCYP33D3. The results revealed that these cytochrome P450 genes were likely to be associated with the vitality, dispersal ability, reproduction, pathogenicity and pesticide metabolism of B. xylophilus. This discovery confirmed the molecular characterization and functions of three cytochrome P450 genes from B. xylophilus and provided fundamental information in elucidating the molecular interaction mechanism between B. xylophilus and its host plant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Article
Chloroplast-Expressed MSI-99 in Tobacco Improves Disease Resistance and Displays Inhibitory Effect against Rice Blast Fungus
by Yun-Peng Wang, Zheng-Yi Wei, Yu-Ying Zhang, Chun-Jing Lin, Xiao-Fang Zhong, Yue-Lin Wang, Jing-Yong Ma, Jian Ma and Shao-Chen Xing
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(3), 4628-4641; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16034628 - 02 Mar 2015
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6783
Abstract
Rice blast is a major destructive fungal disease that poses a serious threat to rice production and the improvement of blast resistance is critical to rice breeding. The antimicrobial peptide MSI-99 has been suggested as an antimicrobial peptide conferring resistance to bacterial and [...] Read more.
Rice blast is a major destructive fungal disease that poses a serious threat to rice production and the improvement of blast resistance is critical to rice breeding. The antimicrobial peptide MSI-99 has been suggested as an antimicrobial peptide conferring resistance to bacterial and fungal diseases. Here, a vector harboring the MSI-99 gene was constructed and introduced into the tobacco chloroplast genome via particle bombardment. Transformed plants were obtained and verified to be homoplastomic by PCR and Southern hybridization. In planta assays demonstrated that the transgenic tobacco plants displayed an enhanced resistance to the fungal disease. The evaluation of the antimicrobial activity revealed that the crude protein extracts from the transgenic plants manifested an antimicrobial activity against E. coli, even after incubation at 120 °C for 20 min, indicating significant heat stability of MSI-99. More importantly, the MSI-99-containing protein extracts were firstly proved in vitro and in vivo to display significant suppressive effects on two rice blast isolates. These findings provide a strong basis for the development of new biopesticides to combat rice blast. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Review

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2824 KiB  
Review
The Role of Plant–Microbe Interactions and Their Exploitation for Phytoremediation of Air Pollutants
by Nele Weyens, Sofie Thijs, Robert Popek, Nele Witters, Arkadiusz Przybysz, Jordan Espenshade, Helena Gawronska, Jaco Vangronsveld and Stanislaw W. Gawronski
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 25576-25604; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161025576 - 26 Oct 2015
Cited by 116 | Viewed by 22159
Abstract
Since air pollution has been linked to a plethora of human health problems, strategies to improve air quality are indispensable. Despite the complexity in composition of air pollution, phytoremediation was shown to be effective in cleaning air. Plants are known to scavenge significant [...] Read more.
Since air pollution has been linked to a plethora of human health problems, strategies to improve air quality are indispensable. Despite the complexity in composition of air pollution, phytoremediation was shown to be effective in cleaning air. Plants are known to scavenge significant amounts of air pollutants on their aboveground plant parts. Leaf fall and runoff lead to transfer of (part of) the adsorbed pollutants to the soil and rhizosphere below. After uptake in the roots and leaves, plants can metabolize, sequestrate and/or excrete air pollutants. In addition, plant-associated microorganisms play an important role by degrading, detoxifying or sequestrating the pollutants and by promoting plant growth. In this review, an overview of the available knowledge about the role and potential of plant–microbe interactions to improve indoor and outdoor air quality is provided. Most importantly, common air pollutants (particulate matter, volatile organic compounds and inorganic air pollutants) and their toxicity are described. For each of these pollutant types, a concise overview of the specific contributions of the plant and its microbiome is presented. To conclude, the state of the art and its related future challenges are presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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1178 KiB  
Review
Metabolomics to Decipher the Chemical Defense of Cereals against Fusarium graminearum and Deoxynivalenol Accumulation
by Léa Gauthier, Vessela Atanasova-Penichon, Sylvain Chéreau and Florence Richard-Forget
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 24839-24872; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161024839 - 20 Oct 2015
Cited by 71 | Viewed by 10121
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum is the causal agent of Fusarium head blight (FHB) and Gibberella ear rot (GER), two devastating diseases of wheat, barley, and maize. Furthermore, F. graminearum species can produce type B trichothecene mycotoxins that accumulate in grains. Use of FHB and GER [...] Read more.
Fusarium graminearum is the causal agent of Fusarium head blight (FHB) and Gibberella ear rot (GER), two devastating diseases of wheat, barley, and maize. Furthermore, F. graminearum species can produce type B trichothecene mycotoxins that accumulate in grains. Use of FHB and GER resistant cultivars is one of the most promising strategies to reduce damage induced by F. graminearum. Combined with genetic approaches, metabolomic ones can provide powerful opportunities for plant breeding through the identification of resistant biomarker metabolites which have the advantage of integrating the genetic background and the influence of the environment. In the past decade, several metabolomics attempts have been made to decipher the chemical defense that cereals employ to counteract F. graminearum. By covering the major classes of metabolites that have been highlighted and addressing their potential role, this review demonstrates the complex and integrated network of events that cereals can orchestrate to resist to F. graminearum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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741 KiB  
Review
The Role of Pathogen-Secreted Proteins in Fungal Vascular Wilt Diseases
by Mara De Sain and Martijn Rep
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 23970-23993; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161023970 - 09 Oct 2015
Cited by 94 | Viewed by 9142
Abstract
A limited number of fungi can cause wilting disease in plants through colonization of the vascular system, the most well-known being Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum. Like all pathogenic microorganisms, vascular wilt fungi secrete proteins during host colonization. Whole-genome sequencing and proteomics [...] Read more.
A limited number of fungi can cause wilting disease in plants through colonization of the vascular system, the most well-known being Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum. Like all pathogenic microorganisms, vascular wilt fungi secrete proteins during host colonization. Whole-genome sequencing and proteomics screens have identified many of these proteins, including small, usually cysteine-rich proteins, necrosis-inducing proteins and enzymes. Gene deletion experiments have provided evidence that some of these proteins are required for pathogenicity, while the role of other secreted proteins remains enigmatic. On the other hand, the plant immune system can recognize some secreted proteins or their actions, resulting in disease resistance. We give an overview of proteins currently known to be secreted by vascular wilt fungi and discuss their role in pathogenicity and plant immunity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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Review
Regulatory Proteolysis in Arabidopsis-Pathogen Interactions
by Miklós Pogány, Tamás Dankó, Evelin Kámán-Tóth, Ildikó Schwarczinger and Zoltán Bozsó
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 23177-23194; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161023177 - 24 Sep 2015
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6777
Abstract
Approximately two and a half percent of protein coding genes in Arabidopsis encode enzymes with known or putative proteolytic activity. Proteases possess not only common housekeeping functions by recycling nonfunctional proteins. By irreversibly cleaving other proteins, they regulate crucial developmental processes and control [...] Read more.
Approximately two and a half percent of protein coding genes in Arabidopsis encode enzymes with known or putative proteolytic activity. Proteases possess not only common housekeeping functions by recycling nonfunctional proteins. By irreversibly cleaving other proteins, they regulate crucial developmental processes and control responses to environmental changes. Regulatory proteolysis is also indispensable in interactions between plants and their microbial pathogens. Proteolytic cleavage is simultaneously used both by plant cells, to recognize and inactivate invading pathogens, and by microbes, to overcome the immune system of the plant and successfully colonize host cells. In this review, we present available results on the group of proteases in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana whose functions in microbial pathogenesis were confirmed. Pathogen-derived proteolytic factors are also discussed when they are involved in the cleavage of host metabolites. Considering the wealth of review papers available in the field of the ubiquitin-26S proteasome system results on the ubiquitin cascade are not presented. Arabidopsis and its pathogens are conferred with abundant sets of proteases. This review compiles a list of those that are apparently involved in an interaction between the plant and its pathogens, also presenting their molecular partners when available. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Microbe Interaction)
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