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3D Printing of Gel-Based Materials (2nd Edition)
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3D Printing of Gel-Based Materials (2nd Edition)

A special issue of Gels (ISSN 2310-2861). This special issue belongs to the section "Gel Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2026) | Viewed by 5468

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Aitor Tejo-Otero

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
BIOMAT Research Group, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Escuela de Ingeniería de Gipuzkoa, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
Interests: 3D printing; additive manufacturing; polymers; silicones; hydrogels
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Hangyu Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
Interests: biosensors; bioelectronics; supermolecular self-assembly; biomaterials and 3D bioprinting
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Three-dimensional printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), is defined as the process of building blocks, layer-upon-layer, making it different from subtractive technologies. In recent years, this area has been expanding and has been applied to different industries, such as medicine, aeronautics, automotive applications, etc. Some advantages of 3D printing over traditional methods are the opportunity to manufacture complex architectures, produce less waste, and reduce production time.

Different materials can be used, including metals, ceramics, or polymers. However, depending on the target, it is more suitable to use one type of material over another. In the case of soft materials, the best choice by far is the use of polymers and special gel-based materials, which can include resins, silicones, or hydrogels.

The aim of the present Special Issue is to advance the state-of-the-art of the synthesis of gel-based materials for different purposes. Therefore, topics of interest for the present Special Issue include the following:

  • The bioprinting of materials that can be used in medical applications;
  • The 3D printing of soft materials;
  • Polymers;
  • Hydrogels;
  • Resins;
  • The synthesis of new soft materials.

Dr. Aitor Tejo-Otero
Dr. Hangyu Zhang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Gels is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • polymers
  • 3D printing
  • hydrogels
  • bioengineering
  • bioprinting

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 9124 KB  
Article
Vat Photopolymerization-Fabricated Theranostic Hydrogels for Smart Wound Management
by Karl Albright Tiston, Laureen Ida Ballesteros, Jo Marie Venus Agad, Patrick Meracandayo, Karlos Mayo Silva, Toni Beth Lopez, Nadnudda Rodthongkum, Voravee P. Hoven and Rigoberto Advincula
Gels 2026, 12(5), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12050393 (registering DOI) - 2 May 2026
Abstract
Despite the demand for personalized wound care, integrating diagnostics and therapeutics into a unified platform remains a significant challenge. To address this, we developed a 3D-printed theranostic hydrogel using vat photopolymerization, enabling precise, multifunctional wound management. The hydrogel matrix, composed of poly(acrylamide-co [...] Read more.
Despite the demand for personalized wound care, integrating diagnostics and therapeutics into a unified platform remains a significant challenge. To address this, we developed a 3D-printed theranostic hydrogel using vat photopolymerization, enabling precise, multifunctional wound management. The hydrogel matrix, composed of poly(acrylamide-co-hydroxyethyl acrylate) and carboxymethyl cellulose, was chemically crosslinked with poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate. Bromocresol purple was integrated into the photosensitive resin to enhance printing fidelity and serve as a diagnostic indicator, providing a distinct colorimetric shift upon skin infection. For controlled drug delivery, graphene oxide (GO) and levofloxacin were incorporated into the system. The 3D-printed hydrogel demonstrated superior swelling capacity (>600%), ideal for absorbing wound exudate. A semi-quantitative linear colorimetric response was observed across varying pH levels, allowing for clear differentiation between healthy healing skin (pH 4.0–6.0) and infected conditions (pH 7.0 and above). Furthermore, the hydrogel exhibited infection-stimulated therapy, with a cumulative levofloxacin release of 92.63% at pH 8, significantly higher than in acidic conditions. Moreover, the incorporation of GO further optimized the delivery profile by tuning absorption and release rates. Synergizing real-time monitoring and on-demand therapeutic action, this 3D-printed system offers a scalable, robust solution for future-ready, personalized wound management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing of Gel-Based Materials (2nd Edition))
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17 pages, 4432 KB  
Article
Multi-Material Extrusion-Based 3D Printing of Hybrid Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Application
by Andrey Abramov, Yan Sulkhanov and Natalia Menshutina
Gels 2026, 12(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12020123 - 29 Jan 2026
Viewed by 697
Abstract
Additive manufacturing of hydrogel-based scaffolds requires concurrent control of material rheology and extrusion dynamics, especially in multi-material architectures. In this work, we develop a modular multi-material extrusion-based 3D-printing platform that combines a filament-fed extruder for thermoplastic polymers with a piston-driven extruder for viscous [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing of hydrogel-based scaffolds requires concurrent control of material rheology and extrusion dynamics, especially in multi-material architectures. In this work, we develop a modular multi-material extrusion-based 3D-printing platform that combines a filament-fed extruder for thermoplastic polymers with a piston-driven extruder for viscous gel inks, together with an empirical calibration procedure for gel dosing. The calibration algorithm optimizes the pre-extrusion and retraction displacement (EPr/R) based on stepwise extrusion experiments and reduces the discrepancy between theoretical and measured deposited mass for shear-thinning alginate gels to below the prescribed tolerance. The calibrated system is then used to fabricate two representative hybrid constructs: partially crosslinked sodium alginate scaffolds with an internal hollow channel supported by a removable polycaprolactone framework, and self-supporting structures based on a sodium alginate–chitosan polyelectrolyte complex obtained by sequential co-extrusion. The resulting constructs remain mechanically stable after ionic crosslinking and solvent treatment and can subsequently be converted into highly porous scaffolds by freeze- or supercritical drying. The proposed combination of hardware architecture and extrusion calibration enables reproducible multi-material 3D printing of hydrogel–thermoplastic hybrid scaffolds and can be readily adapted to other gel-based inks for tissue engineering applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing of Gel-Based Materials (2nd Edition))
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21 pages, 8320 KB  
Article
Optimization of SA-Gel Hydrogel Printing Parameters for Extrusion-Based 3D Bioprinting
by Weihong Chai, Yalong An, Xingli Wang, Zhe Yang and Qinghua Wei
Gels 2025, 11(7), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11070552 - 17 Jul 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2184
Abstract
Extrusion-based 3D bioprinting is prevalent in tissue engineering, but enhancing precision is critical as demands for functionality and accuracy escalate. Process parameters (nozzle diameter d, layer height h, printing speed v1, extrusion speed v2) significantly influence hydrogel [...] Read more.
Extrusion-based 3D bioprinting is prevalent in tissue engineering, but enhancing precision is critical as demands for functionality and accuracy escalate. Process parameters (nozzle diameter d, layer height h, printing speed v1, extrusion speed v2) significantly influence hydrogel deposition and structure formation. This study optimizes these parameters using an orthogonal experimental design and grey relational analysis. Hydrogel filament formability and the die swell ratio served as optimization objectives. A response mathematical model linking parameters to grey relational grade was established via support vector regression (SVR). Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) then determined the optimal parameter combination: d = 0.6 mm, h = 0.3 mm, v1 = 8 mm/s, and v2 = 8 mm/s. Comparative experiments showed the optimized parameters predicted by the model with a mean error of 5.15% for printing precision, which outperformed random sets. This data-driven approach reduces uncertainties inherent in conventional simulation methods, enhancing predictive accuracy. The methodology establishes a novel framework for optimizing precision in extrusion-based 3D bioprinting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing of Gel-Based Materials (2nd Edition))
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Review

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23 pages, 1692 KB  
Review
3D Printing with Tragacanth-Gum-Based Bioinks: A New Frontier in Bioprinting Materials
by Shivani Dogra, Bhupendra Koul, Ananta Prasad Arukha and Muhammad Fazle Rabbee
Gels 2026, 12(2), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12020152 - 7 Feb 2026
Viewed by 641
Abstract
Extrusion-based bioprinting is widely used for fabricating cell-laden constructs; however, its success is highly dependent on the rheological and biological performance of the bioink. Natural polysaccharide gums have emerged as promising bioink components due to their biocompatibility and tunable properties. Among them, tragacanth [...] Read more.
Extrusion-based bioprinting is widely used for fabricating cell-laden constructs; however, its success is highly dependent on the rheological and biological performance of the bioink. Natural polysaccharide gums have emerged as promising bioink components due to their biocompatibility and tunable properties. Among them, tragacanth gum (TG), a complex anionic heteropolysaccharide composed of tragacanthin and bassorin fractions, has gained increasing attention for extrusion bioprinting applications. TG exhibits pronounced shear-thinning behavior, high water uptake, and spontaneous gel-forming ability, which collectively enhance the printability, shape fidelity, and structural stability of bioinks. This review critically summarizes recent advances in TG-based hydrogels and bioinks, with emphasis on their molecular characteristics, rheological and physicochemical properties, and biological performance in extrusion bioprinting systems. The role of TG as a functional component in composite bioinks, particularly in improving mechanical integrity, extrusion consistency, and cytocompatibility, is discussed. Finally, current challenges and future research directions are highlighted to support the development and clinical translation of TG-based bioinks for tissue engineering applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing of Gel-Based Materials (2nd Edition))
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48 pages, 4818 KB  
Review
Design and Application of Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels for 4D Printing: A Review of Adaptive Materials in Engineering
by Muhammad F. Siddique, Farag K. Omar and Ali H. Al-Marzouqi
Gels 2026, 12(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12020138 - 2 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1468
Abstract
Stimuli-responsive hydrogels are an emerging class of smart materials with immense potential across biomedical engineering, soft robotics, environmental systems, and advanced manufacturing. In this review, we present an in-depth exploration of their material design, classification, fabrication strategies, and real-world applications. We examine how [...] Read more.
Stimuli-responsive hydrogels are an emerging class of smart materials with immense potential across biomedical engineering, soft robotics, environmental systems, and advanced manufacturing. In this review, we present an in-depth exploration of their material design, classification, fabrication strategies, and real-world applications. We examine how a wide range of external stimuli—such as temperature, pH, moisture, ions, electricity, magnetism, redox conditions, and light—interact with polymer composition and crosslinking chemistry to shape the responsive behavior of hydrogels. Special attention is given to the growing field of 4D printing, where time-dependent shape and property changes enable dynamic, programmable systems. Unlike existing reviews that often treat materials, stimuli, or applications in isolation, this work introduces a multidimensional comparative framework that connects stimulus-response behavior with fabrication techniques and end-use domains. We also highlight key challenges that limit practical deployment—including mechanical fragility, slow actuation, and scale-up difficulties—and outline engineering solutions such as hybrid material design, anisotropic structuring, and multi-stimuli integration. Our aim is to offer a forward-looking perspective that bridges material innovation with functional design, serving as a resource for researchers and engineers working to develop next-generation adaptive systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing of Gel-Based Materials (2nd Edition))
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