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Gels
Special Issues
Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery
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Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery

A special issue of Gels (ISSN 2310-2861). This special issue belongs to the section "Gel Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 August 2025 | Viewed by 10338

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Robert-Alexandru Vlad

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Guest Editor
Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
Interests: hydrogels; oleogels; bigels; ODTs; ODFs; HPLC; SeDeM; SSCD
Prof. Dr. Adriana Ciurba

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
Interests: gels formulation; reology; texture analysis; sensorial analysis; transdermal permeation
Dr. Paula Antonoaea

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, 540142 Targu Mures, Romania
Interests: hydrogels; oleogels; bigels; transdermal; nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Prof. Dr. Aline F. Miller

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
Interests: peptide self-assembly; rheology; structure–property relationships; hydrogels; cell culture; tissue engineering; drug delivery
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Semisolid preparations have always been preferred by patients due to their decreased risk of side effects and ease of administration. The selected semisolid formulations in this Special Issue are hydrogels, oleogels, and a combination of these two called bigels (a semisolid form that can provide the same or better properties than the latter two; they are also named viscous emulsions). All three of them can incorporate many active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from different biopharmaceutical classes (BCS I-IV), resulting in homogenous (dissolved in the gel base) or heterogenous dispersions (dispersed as an emulsion or suspended in the gel base) that imply distinctive behaviors regarding permeation through different membranes (natural or synthetic). The size of the dispersed API and the application area can influence permeation through the biological membranes. The way the API remains as a dispersion in the gelled matrix also influences the gel’s structure and its behavior regarding consistency, extensometry, cohesiveness, adhesivity, extrudability, etc. This Special Issue aims to outline the current research on semisolid pharmaceutical formulations, focusing on hydrogels, oleogels, and bigels, and welcomes original and review papers on all the aspects of their design, development, manufacturing, characterization, administration, and use for patient-centered therapy.

Dr. Robert-Alexandru Vlad
Prof. Dr. Adriana Ciurba
Dr. Paula Antonoaea
Prof. Dr. Aline F. Miller
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Gels is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • hydrogels, oleogels, and bigels
  • semisolid pharmaceuticals and semisolid dispersions
  • pharmaceutical technology
  • industrial pharmaceutical processes
  • semisolid formulations development
  • topical and in situ gelling systems
  • gelled system formers and gel-forming polymers
  • pharmacotechnical analysis
  • semi-solid control diagram (SSCD)
  • texture and consistency analysis
  • rheology and mathematical modeling
  • in vitro penetration tests, membrane permeation, and mathematical modeling
  • franz and diffusion cells, static permeation flux, and dynamic permeation flux
  • membranes, natural membranes, synthetic membranes
  • transdermal drug delivery
  • quality via the design of experiments

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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26 pages, 19631 KiB  
Article
Design of a Foam-Actuated Nano-Emulgel for Perioceutic Drug Delivery: Formulation, Characterization, and Antimicrobial Efficacy
by Theresa P. K. Varughese, Poornima Ramburrun, Nnamdi I. Okafor, Sandy van Vuuren and Yahya E. Choonara
Gels 2025, 11(5), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11050373 - 20 May 2025
Viewed by 128
Abstract
Periodontitis is a prevalent oral condition worldwide. Azithromycin, a conventional lipophilic drug for periodontal treatment, often causes systemic side effects when administered orally. To address this, azithromycin-loaded nano-emulgels were developed using olive oil as a carrier within a xanthan gum aqueous gel phase. [...] Read more.
Periodontitis is a prevalent oral condition worldwide. Azithromycin, a conventional lipophilic drug for periodontal treatment, often causes systemic side effects when administered orally. To address this, azithromycin-loaded nano-emulgels were developed using olive oil as a carrier within a xanthan gum aqueous gel phase. This oil-in-aqueous gel emulsion was actuated into a foam for localized drug delivery in gingival and periodontal disease. The solubility of azithromycin in various vehicles was tested, with olive oil showing the best solubility (0.347 mg/mL). Thermodynamic stability testing identified viable nano-formulations, with encapsulation efficiencies ranging from 98 to 100%. These formulations exhibited rapid drug release within 2–8 h. Muco-adhesion studies and ex vivo permeability tests on porcine buccal mucosa highlighted the beneficial properties of xanthan gum for local drug retention within the oral cavity. Antimicrobial efficiency was assessed using minimum inhibitory concentrations against various oral pathogens, where the formulation with equal surfactant and co-surfactant ratios showed the most potent antibacterial activity, ranging from 0.390 to 1.56 µg/mL. This was supported by the shear-thinning, muco-adhesive, and drug-retentive properties of the xanthan gel base. The study also examined the influence of the oil phase with xanthan gum gel on foam texture, rheology, and stability, demonstrating a promising prototype for periodontitis treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery)
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21 pages, 2780 KiB  
Article
Swelling Behavior, Biocompatibility, and Controlled Delivery of Sodium–Diclofenac in New Temperature-Responsive P(OEGMA/OPGMA) Copolymeric Hydrogels
by Zorana Rogic Miladinovic, Maja Krstic and Edin Suljovrujic
Gels 2025, 11(3), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11030201 - 14 Mar 2025
Viewed by 448
Abstract
This study investigates the synthesis and properties of innovative poly(oligo(alkylene glycol)) methacrylate hydrogels synthesized via gamma radiation-induced copolymerization and the crosslinking of oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate (OEGMA) and oligo(propylene glycol) methacrylate (OPGMA) at varying mole fractions. Our primary objective is to investigate the impact [...] Read more.
This study investigates the synthesis and properties of innovative poly(oligo(alkylene glycol)) methacrylate hydrogels synthesized via gamma radiation-induced copolymerization and the crosslinking of oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate (OEGMA) and oligo(propylene glycol) methacrylate (OPGMA) at varying mole fractions. Our primary objective is to investigate the impact of copolymerization on the swelling properties of P(OEGMA/OPGMA) hydrogels compared to their homopolymeric counterparts, namely, POEGMA and POPGMA, which exhibit distinct volume phase transition temperatures (VPTTs) of around 70 and 13 °C, respectively, under physiological conditions. To this end, a comprehensive library of smart methacrylate-based hydrogel biomaterials was developed, featuring detailed data on their swelling behavior across different copolymer molar ratios and physiological temperature ranges. To achieve these objectives, we conducted swelling behavior analysis across a wide range of temperatures, assessed the pH sensitivity of hydrogels, utilized scanning electron microscopy for morphological characterization, performed in vitro biocompatibility assessment through cell viability and hemolysis assays, and employed diclofenac sodium as a model drug to control drug delivery testing. Our findings demonstrate that the newly synthesized P(OEGMA40/OPGMA60) copolymeric hydrogel exhibits desirable characteristics, with VPTT close to the physiological temperatures required for controlled drug delivery applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery)
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14 pages, 3392 KiB  
Article
Double Encapsulation of Resveratrol and Doxorubicin in Composite Nanogel—An Opportunity to Reduce Cardio- and Neurotoxicity of Doxorubicin
by Lyubomira Radeva, Yordan Yordanov, Ivanka Spassova, Daniela Kovacheva, Virginia Tzankova and Krassimira Yoncheva
Gels 2024, 10(11), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10110699 - 28 Oct 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1651
Abstract
The simultaneous encapsulation of drugs into nanosized delivery systems could be beneficial for cancer therapies since it could alleviate adverse reactions as well as provide synergistic effects. However, the encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs into hydrophilic nanoparticles, such as nanogels, could be challenging. Therefore, [...] Read more.
The simultaneous encapsulation of drugs into nanosized delivery systems could be beneficial for cancer therapies since it could alleviate adverse reactions as well as provide synergistic effects. However, the encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs into hydrophilic nanoparticles, such as nanogels, could be challenging. Therefore, innovative technological approaches are needed. In this research, a composite nanogel system was prepared from chitosan, albumin, and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin for co-delivery of the hydrophilic anticancer drug doxorubicin and hydrophobic antioxidant resveratrol. The nanoparticles were characterized using dynamic light scattering and found to have a hydrodynamic diameter of approx. 31 nm, narrow size distribution (PDI = 0.188), positive ƺ-potential (+51.23 mV), and pH-dependent release of the loaded drugs. FTIR and X-ray analyses proved the successful development of the composite nanogel. Moreover, the double-loaded system showed that the loading of resveratrol exerted protection against doxorubicin-induced toxicity in cardioblast H9c2 and neuroblast SH-SY5Y cells. The simultaneous loading did not influence the cytostatic effect of the antitumor agent in lymphoma L5178Y and L5178MDR cell lines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery)
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19 pages, 3291 KiB  
Article
QbD Approach in Cosmetic Cleansers Research: The Development of a Moisturizing Cleansing Foam Focusing on Thickener, Surfactants, and Polyols Content
by Cătălina Bogdan, Diana Antonia Safta, Sonia Iurian, Dyana Roxana Petrușcă and Mirela-Liliana Moldovan
Gels 2024, 10(8), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10080484 - 23 Jul 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2281
Abstract
Cleansing products, particularly innovative cosmetic foams, must efficiently remove impurities with minimal impact on the skin barrier and have a favorable sensory profile. The choice of product ingredients is crucial to ensure the optimal characteristics. The current study aims to provide a comprehensive [...] Read more.
Cleansing products, particularly innovative cosmetic foams, must efficiently remove impurities with minimal impact on the skin barrier and have a favorable sensory profile. The choice of product ingredients is crucial to ensure the optimal characteristics. The current study aims to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the variability in the characteristics of a cleansing foam to achieve desired properties. The novelty of this study lies in the combination of ingredients for their potential synergistic and complementary effects in cleansing dry skin, as well as the application of Quality by Design (QbD) elements to develop and optimize the formulation of cleansing foam. The effects of varying the concentration of mild surfactants, polyols, and gel-forming agents on the properties of the gels and of the generated foams were studied. Significant influences of the formulation factors were observed: an increased ratio of xanthan gum positively impacted the texture properties of the gel, whereas higher concentrations of surfactants had a negative impact on these parameters. Additionally, increasing the polyols ratio was found to negatively influence the foaming property and stability of the foam. The study established an optimal formulation of a cleansing foam with a ratio of 0.45% xanthan gum, 26.19% surfactants and 2.16% polyols to be used for dry skin hygiene. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery)
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16 pages, 3685 KiB  
Article
Microemulsion-Based Polymer Gels with Ketoprofen and Menthol: Physicochemical Properties and Drug Release Studies
by Filip Otto and Anna Froelich
Gels 2024, 10(7), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10070435 - 29 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1985
Abstract
Ketoprofen is a non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory drug frequently incorporated in topical dosage forms which are an interesting alternatives for oral formulations. However, due to the physiological barrier function of skin, topical formulations may require some approaches to improve drug permeation across the skin. In [...] Read more.
Ketoprofen is a non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory drug frequently incorporated in topical dosage forms which are an interesting alternatives for oral formulations. However, due to the physiological barrier function of skin, topical formulations may require some approaches to improve drug permeation across the skin. In this study, ketoprofen-loaded microemulsion-based gels with the addition of menthol, commonly known for absorption-enhancing activity in dermal products, were investigated. The main objective of this study was to analyze the physicochemical properties of the obtained gels in terms of topical application and to investigate the correlation between the gel composition and its mechanical properties and the drug release process. Microemulsion composition was selected with the use of a pseudoternary plot and the selected systems were tested for electrical conductivity, viscosity, pH, and particle diameter. The polymer gels obtained with Carbopol® EZ-3 were subjected to rheological and textural studies, as well as the drug release experiment. The obtained results indicate that the presence of ketoprofen slightly decreased yield stress values. A stronger effect was exerted by menthol presence, even though it was independent of menthol concentration. A similar tendency was seen for hardness and adhesiveness, as tested in texture profile analysis. Sample cohesiveness and the drug release rate were independent of the gel composition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery)
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Review

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25 pages, 3496 KiB  
Review
Agriculture 4.0: Polymer Hydrogels as Delivery Agents of Active Ingredients
by Aleksandra Mikhailidi, Elena Ungureanu, Bogdan-Marian Tofanica, Ovidiu C. Ungureanu, Maria E. Fortună, Dan Belosinschi and Irina Volf
Gels 2024, 10(6), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10060368 - 26 May 2024
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2962
Abstract
The evolution from conventional to modern agricultural practices, characterized by Agriculture 4.0 principles such as the application of innovative materials, smart water, and nutrition management, addresses the present-day challenges of food supply. In this context, polymer hydrogels have become a promising material for [...] Read more.
The evolution from conventional to modern agricultural practices, characterized by Agriculture 4.0 principles such as the application of innovative materials, smart water, and nutrition management, addresses the present-day challenges of food supply. In this context, polymer hydrogels have become a promising material for enhancing agricultural productivity due to their ability to retain and then release water, which can help alleviate the need for frequent irrigation in dryland environments. Furthermore, the controlled release of fertilizers by the hydrogels decreases chemical overdosing risks and the environmental impact associated with the use of agrochemicals. The potential of polymer hydrogels in sustainable agriculture and farming and their impact on soil quality is revealed by their ability to deliver nutritional and protective active ingredients. Thus, the impact of hydrogels on plant growth, development, and yield was discussed. The question of which hydrogels are more suitable for agriculture—natural or synthetic—is debatable, as both have their merits and drawbacks. An analysis of polymer hydrogel life cycles in terms of their initial material has shown the advantage of bio-based hydrogels, such as cellulose, lignin, starch, alginate, chitosan, and their derivatives and hybrids, aligning with sustainable practices and reducing dependence on non-renewable resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels, Oleogels and Bigels Used for Drug Delivery)
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