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Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "E: Electric Vehicles".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 November 2025 | Viewed by 16473

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Katarzyna Turoń

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Department of Road Transport, Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
Interests: shared mobility; car-sharing; bike-sharing; scooter-sharing; new mobility; electromobility; electric mobility; electric shared mobility; sustainable transport systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Andrzej Kubik

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Department of Road Transport, Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
Interests: civil engineering; materials enginering; smart cities; smart systems; mobility as a service; MaaS systems; shared mobility; mobility management; electric mobility; e-mobility; wear; sustainable transport
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Prof. Dr. Bogusław Łazarz

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Department of Road Transport, Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
Interests: machine and structure dynamics; vibroacoustic behavior of machines and structures; signal processing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Currently, due to the necessity to limit vehicle traffic in cities and increasing restrictions for the automotive industry, alternative drive vehicles are becoming increasingly more often used in urban transport systems. While the production of electric or hydrogen vehicles is no longer a challenge, their proper functioning in urban transport systems prompts an abundance of significant problems occurring on various levels, ranging from relevant legislative requirements and the implementation of restrictions to ensuring an appropriate logistics service, including charging networks for electric vehicles or hydrogen refueling.

A separate issue is also the technical and technological requirements that directly relate to architectural and engineering constraints, e.g., safety rules, the presence of an appropriate power level, etc. Moreover, there is also the problem of the proper functioning of the network fleet of vehicles equipped with electric or hydrogen propulsion, not forgetting taxis, vehicles from shared mobility services or vehicles from, for example, courier networks or municipal services, e.g., cleaning services, city guards, etc.

All the challenges related to the proper functioning of electric and hydrogen vehicles in urban transport systems are current and interesting research issues. Therefore, this Special Issue is devoted to the current state, plans, and technical requirements for electric and hydrogen vehicles in urban transport systems, as well as being dedicated to promoting the investigation of the latest research in electric and hydrogen vehicles in the context of sustainable smart cities. Any research regarding the analysis of the current status and development of vehicles or their networks, plans and forecasts, calculations, theoretical and practical discussions, as well as case studies are very welcome.

Dr. Katarzyna Turoń
Dr. Andrzej Kubik
Prof. Dr. Bogusław Łazarz
Guest Editors

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Keywords

electric vehicles
hydrogen vehicles
fleet management
technical conditions of electric vehicles
technical conditions of hydrogen vehicles
electric shared mobility
hydrogen shared mobility
mobility management
urban transport systems

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 490 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Vehicle Adoption: Perceptions, Barriers, and Global Strategies

by Adam Przybylowski, Kamil Palewski and Tomasz Owczarek

Energies 2025, 18(21), 5647; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18215647 - 28 Oct 2025

Viewed by 138

Abstract

This paper analyzes the potential of hydrogen technologies in transport, placing it within the context of global environmental and energy challenges. Its primary purpose is to evaluate the prospects for the implementation of these technologies at international and national levels, including Poland. This study utilizes a literature review and an analysis of the results of a highly limited, exploratory pilot survey measuring public perception of hydrogen technology in transport. It is critical to note that the survey was conducted on a small, non-representative sample and exhibited a strong geographical bias, primarily collecting responses from Europe (50 people) and North America (30 people). This study also details hydrogen vehicle types (FCEV, HICE) and the essential infrastructure required (HRS). Despite solid technological foundations, the development of hydrogen technology heavily relies on non-technical factors, such as infrastructure development, support policy, and social acceptance. Globally, the number of vehicles and stations is growing but remains limited, with the pace of development correlating with the involvement of countries. The pilot survey revealed a generally positive perception of the technology (mainly due to environmental benefits) but highlighted three key barriers: limited availability of refueling infrastructure—51.5% of respondents strongly agreed on this obstacle, high purchase and maintenance costs, and insufficient public awareness. Infrastructure subsidies and tax breaks were identified as effective incentives. Hydrogen technology offers a potentially competitive and sustainable transport solution, but it demands significant systemic support, intensive investment in large-scale infrastructure expansion, and comprehensive educational activities. Further governmental engagement is crucial. The severe limitations resulting from the pilot nature of the survey should be rigorously taken into account during interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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24 pages, 3402 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fuzzy Logic Estimation of Coincidence Factors for EV Fleet Charging Infrastructure Planning in Residential Buildings

by Salvador Carvalhosa, José Rui Ferreira and Rui Esteves Araújo

Energies 2025, 18(17), 4679; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18174679 - 3 Sep 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 733

Abstract

As electric vehicle (EV) adoption accelerates, residential buildings—particularly multi-dwelling structures—face increasing challenges to electrical infrastructure, notably due to conservative sizing practices of electrical feeders based on maximum simultaneous demand. Current sizing methods assume all EVs charge simultaneously at maximum capacity, resulting in unnecessarily oversized and costly electrical installations. This study proposes an optimized methodology to estimate accurate coincidence factors, leveraging simulations of EV user charging behaviors in multi-dwelling residential environments. Charging scenarios considering different fleet sizes (1 to 70 EVs) were simulated under two distinct premises of charging: minimization of current allocation to achieve the desired battery state-of-charge and maximization of instantaneous power delivery. Results demonstrate significant deviations from conventional assumptions, with estimated coincidence factors decreasing non-linearly as fleet size increases. Specifically, applying the derived coincidence factors can reduce feeder section requirements by up to 86%, substantially lowering material costs. A fuzzy logic inference model is further developed to refine these estimates based on fleet characteristics and optimization preferences, providing a practical tool for infrastructure planners. The results were compared against other studies and real-life data. Finally, the proposed methodology thus contributes to more efficient, cost-effective design strategies for EV charging infrastructures in residential buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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23 pages, 5773 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Seasonal Risk Assessment of Hydrogen Leakage, Diffusion, and Explosion in Hydrogen Refueling Station

by Yaling Liu, Yao Zeng, Guanxi Zhao, Huarong Hou, Yangfan Song and Bin Ding

Energies 2025, 18(15), 4172; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154172 - 6 Aug 2025

Viewed by 521

Abstract

To reveal the influence mechanisms of seasonal climatic factors (wind speed, wind direction, temperature) and leakage direction on hydrogen dispersion and explosion behavior from single-source leaks at typical risk locations (hydrogen storage tanks, compressors, dispensers) in hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs), this work established a full-scale 1:1 three-dimensional numerical model using the FLACS v22.2 software based on the actual layout of an HRS in Xichang, Sichuan Province. Through systematic simulations of 72 leakage scenarios (3 equipment types × 4 seasons × 6 leakage directions), the coupled effects of climatic conditions, equipment layout, and leakage direction on hydrogen dispersion patterns and explosion risks were quantitatively analyzed. The key findings indicate the following: (1) Downward leaks (−Z direction) from storage tanks tend to form large-area ground-hugging hydrogen clouds, representing the highest explosion risk (overpressure peak: 0.25 barg; flame temperature: >2500 K). Leakage from compressors (±X/−Z directions) readily affects adjacent equipment. Dispenser leaks pose relatively lower risks, but specific directions (−Y direction) coupled with wind fields may drive significant hydrogen dispersion toward station buildings. (2) Southeast/south winds during spring/summer promote outward migration of hydrogen clouds, reducing overall station risk but causing localized accumulation near storage tanks. Conversely, north/northwest winds in autumn/winter intensify hydrogen concentrations in compressor and station building areas. (3) An empirical formula integrating climatic parameters, leakage conditions, and spatial coordinates was proposed to predict hydrogen concentration (error < 20%). This model provides theoretical and data support for optimizing sensor placement, dynamically adjusting ventilation strategies, and enhancing safety design in HRSs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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28 pages, 13159 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Exploring the Impact of Vehicle Lightweighting in Terms of Energy Consumption: Analysis and Simulation on Real Driving Cycle

by Giulia Sandrini, Daniel Chindamo, Marco Gadola, Andrea Candela and Paolo Magri

Energies 2024, 17(24), 6398; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246398 - 19 Dec 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1775

Abstract

Today, reducing vehicle energy consumption is a crucial topic. For electric vehicles, reducing energy consumption is essential to address some of the most critical issues associated with this type of vehicle, such as the limited range of electric powertrains and the long battery recharging times. To lower the environmental impact during the vehicle’s use phase and reduce energy consumption, vehicle mass reduction (lightweighting) is an effective strategy. The objective of this work is to analyze the vehicle parameters that influence lightweighting outcomes on a real driving cycle, representative of the home-to-work travel in northern Italy. In particular, a previous work carried out on standard driving cycles is repeated in order to observe whether it is possible to draw the same conclusions regarding the variability in the lightweighting outcome. This study was conducted using two opposite vehicle models, a compact car and an N1 vehicle, simulated through a well-established vehicle simulation tool for energy consumption estimation. To conduct this analysis, several simulations with variable vehicle mass, and with different vehicle parameters, such as aerodynamics and rolling resistance, were performed to estimate energy consumption across a real-world driving cycle, acquired via GPS on board the vehicle during a home-to-work journey in northern Italy. This study reveals that even for the real driving cycle, as for the WLTC and US06 standards, the parameters that most influence the outcome of the lightening are the rolling resistance, the characteristics of the battery pack, the aerodynamic coefficients, and the efficiency of the transmission. Finally, the standard cycle that best fits with the real one considered in this study is the Artemis Urban Cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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21 pages, 4946 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Simple Energy Model for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles: Model Development and Testing

by Kyoungho Ahn and Hesham A. Rakha

Energies 2024, 17(24), 6360; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246360 - 18 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1485

Abstract

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) are a promising technology for reducing vehicle emissions and improving energy efficiency. Due to the ongoing evolution of this technology, there is limited comprehensive research and documentation regarding the energy modeling of HFCVs. To address this gap, the paper develops a simple HFCV energy consumption model using new fuel cell efficiency estimation methods. Our HFCV energy model leverages real-time vehicle speed, acceleration, and roadway grade data to determine instantaneous power exertion for the computation of hydrogen fuel consumption, battery energy usage, and overall energy consumption. The results suggest that the model’s forecasts align well with real-world data, demonstrating average error rates of 0.0% and −0.1% for fuel cell energy and total energy consumption across all four cycles. However, it is observed that the error rate for the UDDS drive cycle can be as high as 13.1%. Moreover, the study confirms the reliability of the proposed model through validation with independent data. The findings indicate that the model precisely predicts energy consumption, with an error rate of 6.7% for fuel cell estimation and 0.2% for total energy estimation compared to empirical data. Furthermore, the model is compared to FASTSim, which was developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and the difference between the two models is found to be around 2.5%. Additionally, instantaneous battery state of charge (SOC) predictions from the model closely match observed instantaneous SOC measurements, highlighting the model’s effectiveness in estimating real-time changes in the battery SOC. The study investigates the energy impact of various intersection controls to assess the applicability of the proposed energy model. The proposed HFCV energy model offers a practical, versatile alternative, leveraging simplicity without compromising accuracy. Its simplified structure reduces computational requirements, making it ideal for real-time applications, smartphone apps, in-vehicle systems, and transportation simulation tools, while maintaining accuracy and addressing limitations of more complex models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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19 pages, 1345 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating the Impacts of Autonomous Electric Vehicles Adoption on Vehicle Miles Traveled and CO₂ Emissions

by Jingyi Xiao, Konstadinos G. Goulias, Srinath Ravulaparthy, Shivam Sharda, Ling Jin and C. Anna Spurlock

Energies 2024, 17(23), 6127; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236127 - 5 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1908

Abstract

Autonomous electric vehicles (AEVs) can potentially revolutionize the transportation landscape, offering a safer, contact-free, easily accessible, and more eco-friendly mode of travel. Prior to the market uptake of AEVs, it is critical to understand the consumer segments that are most likely to adopt these vehicles. Beyond market adoption, it is also important to quantify the impact of AEVs on broader transportation systems and the environment, such as impacts on the annual vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this pilot study, using survey data, a statistical model correlating AEV adoption intention and socioeconomic and built environment attributes was estimated, and a sensitivity analysis was conducted to understand the importance of factors impacting AEV adoption. We found that the market segments range from early adopters who are wealthy, technologically savvy, and relatively young to non-adopters who are more cautious to new technologies. This is followed by a synthetic population microsimulation of market penetration for the San Francisco Bay Area. With five household vehicle replacement scenarios, we assessed the annual VMT and tailpipe carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions change associated with vehicle replacement. It is found that adopting AEVs can potentially reduce more than 5 megatons of CO₂ yearly, which is approximately 30% of the total CO₂ emitted by internal combustion engine (ICE) cars in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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28 pages, 4680 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Scheduling a Fleet of Dynamic EV Chargers for Maximal Profile

by Shorooq Alaskar and Mohamed Younis

Energies 2024, 17(23), 6009; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236009 - 29 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1170

Abstract

The proliferation of electric vehicles (EVs) faces obstacles like range anxiety and inadequate charging infrastructure. To address these challenges, dynamic EV-to-EV charging technology has emerged. This innovative method enables one EV with surplus battery to charge another EV while both are in motion. This study focuses on efficiently pairing and routing energy suppliers (ESs) to meet energy requesters (ERs) and transfer energy via platooning. The key objective is to manage the ES fleet effectively, framed as a vehicle routing problem, to maximize profit by serving as many energy requests as possible. We formulate the problem as an integer programming model within a time-space network and propose a local search-based heuristic algorithm designed to efficiently handle large-scale networks. Numerical experiments conducted on Sioux Falls validate the efficacy of our approach, allowing for an assessment of algorithm performance under realistic large-scale conditions. The findings illustrate enhancements in ER travel time and energy overhead, alongside maximized profits for ESs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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17 pages, 1546 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Expectations towards Cars to Be Used in Car-Sharing Services—The Perspective of the Current Polish Non-Users

by Katarzyna Turoń

Energies 2022, 15(23), 8849; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238849 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2001

Abstract

In the era of upcoming European Union regulations limiting the registration of combustion cars from 2035, the development of various types of alternatives to balancing transport is on the agenda of modern cities. One of these types of services includes automated short-term car rental systems, i.e., car-sharing systems. In recent years, car-sharing services have been gaining more and more interest among operators and municipal authorities. Despite their intense activities, there are still people in society who have not used car-sharing services so far. A lot of research has been devoted to an attempt to answer their needs in the field of car-sharing, but there is a research gap in the field of detailed analyses of the fleet of cars that they would like to use. Noticing this niche, this article is dedicated to the topic of selecting vehicles for car-sharing systems from the point of view of current non-users and indicating the features that, in their opinion, are the most important parameters characterizing the given vehicles. The research was conducted for the Polish car-sharing market. The obtained results indicate that current non-users would be most interested in small, city B-class cars equipped with internal combustion or electric engines, equipped with a large luggage compartment, and meeting the highest safety standards. Interestingly, the issue of the charging time for electric vehicles was not considered crucial. The results showed that the expectations of non-user vehicles are in contradiction to the expectations of current system users. The article supports car-sharing operators who want to properly manage and modernize their fleet of vehicles to encourage the use of car-sharing among those who are currently unconvinced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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14 pages, 1012 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carsharing Vehicle Fleet Selection from the Frequent User’s Point of View

by Katarzyna Turoń

Energies 2022, 15(17), 6166; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176166 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2743

Abstract

Short-term car rental services, i.e., carsharing, is a solution that has been developing better and better in urban transport systems in recent years. Along with intensive expansion, service providers have to face an increasing number of challenges to compete with each other. One of them is meeting the expectations of customers about the fleet of vehicles offered in the system. While this aspect is noticed in the literature review mainly in terms of fleet optimization and management, there is a research gap regarding the appropriate selection of vehicle models. In response, the article was dedicated to identifying the vehicles that were best suited to carsharing systems from the point of view of frequent customers. The selection of appropriate vehicles was treated as a multi-criteria decision issue, therefore the study used one of the multi-criteria decision support methods—ELECTRE III. The work focuses on researching the opinions of users (experts) who often use carsharing services in Poland. The study included a list of the most popular vehicles in Europe in 2021, including classic, electric, and hybrid cars, and a list of 11 evaluation criteria. The research results indicate for frequent users the advantage of conventional drive vehicles over electric and hydrogen vehicles. Moreover, they indicate that the best vehicles are relatively large cars (European car segments C and D) with the greatest possible length, boot capacity, engine power, number of safety systems, and quality. On the other hand, the least important issues are the number of seats in the vehicle and the number of doors. Interestingly, the vehicles selected by frequent users questioned the concept of small city cars, which occupied a small public space on which carsharing was supposed to focus. The results obtained support the operators of carsharing services in making fleet decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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Review

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22 pages, 1574 KB

Open AccessReview

Economic Efficiency of Sustainable Public Transport: A Literature Review on Electric and Diesel Buses

by Aleksander Jagiełło

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061352 - 10 Mar 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2354

Abstract

In recent years, zero-emission technologies in public transport have developed rapidly, particularly in the electrification of bus fleets. Amid global efforts to reduce CO₂ emissions and improve urban air quality, the economic viability of electric buses compared to conventional diesel counterparts has become an increasingly important issue. The existing research presents diverse approaches to the economic efficiency of these technologies, making definitive conclusions difficult. This article addresses this issue by providing a systematic literature review on the economic efficiency of electric and diesel buses, with a particular focus on the total cost of ownership (TCO) methodology. It identifies the key factors influencing research outcomes and highlights the major methodological limitations, offering valuable insights for future investment decisions and transport policy development. Additionally, the article seeks to answer the following research questions: RQ1—Is there a consensus in the scientific literature regarding the superior or inferior economic efficiency of electric buses compared to conventional buses? RQ2—Which types of urban buses are most commonly used as benchmarks in economic efficiency analyses of electric buses? RQ3—What assumptions are made when analyzing the economic efficiency of electric buses relative to conventional buses? RQ4—How do key economic variables differ across various studies? RQ5—What are the main methodological and empirical limitations in economic efficiency analyses of urban buses? By synthesizing and integrating the findings from multiple studies, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on the cost-effectiveness of electric buses. The results and conclusions contribute to the academic discourse on sustainable mobility, offering valuable insights that deepen the understanding of costs associated with electric public transport. Additionally, this review provides practical information for public transport operators and policymakers, supporting more effective strategic planning of fleet electrification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in Urban Transport Systems: The Current State, Plans, and Technical Requirements)

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