Energies

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36 pages, 1157 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Model-Based Approach to Assessing Operational and Cost Performance of Hydrogen, Battery, and EV Storage in Community Energy Systems

by Pablo Benalcazar, Marcin Malec, Magdalena Trzeciok, Jacek Kamiński and Piotr W. Saługa

Energies 2026, 19(3), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19030794 - 3 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 749

Abstract

Community energy systems are expected to play an increasingly important role in the decarbonization of the residential sector, but their operation depends on how different electricity and heat storage technologies are configured and used. Existing studies typically examine storage options in isolation, limiting [...] Read more.

Community energy systems are expected to play an increasingly important role in the decarbonization of the residential sector, but their operation depends on how different electricity and heat storage technologies are configured and used. Existing studies typically examine storage options in isolation, limiting the comparability of their operational roles. This study addresses this gap by developing a decision-support framework that enables a consistent, operation-focused comparison of battery energy storage, hydrogen storage, and electric-vehicle-based storage within a unified community-scale hybrid energy system. The model represents electricity and heat balances in a hub formulation that couples photovoltaic and wind generation, a gas engine, an electric boiler, thermal and electrical storage units, hydrogen conversion and storage, and an aggregated fleet of electric vehicles. It is applied to a stylized Polish residential community using local demand, generation potential, and electricity price data. A set of single-technology and multi-technology scenarios is analyzed to compare how storage portfolios affect self-sufficiency, self-consumption, grid exchanges, and operating costs under current electricity market conditions. The results show that battery and electric vehicle storage primarily provide short-term flexibility and enable price-driven arbitrage, as reflected in the highest contribution of battery discharge to the electricity supply structure (5.6%) and systematic charging of BES and EVs during low-price hours, while hydrogen storage supports intertemporal shifting by charging in multi-hour surplus periods, reaching a supply share of 1.4% at the expense of substantial conversion losses. Moreover, the findings highlight fundamental trade-offs between cost-optimal, price-responsive operation and autonomy-oriented indicators such as self-sufficiency and self-consumption, showing how these depend on the composition of storage portfolios. The proposed framework, therefore, provides decision support for both technology selection and the planning and regulatory assessment of community energy systems under contemporary electricity market conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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17 pages, 2695 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bottom Ash from Biomass Combustion in Fluidized Bed Boilers in the Context of the Circular Economy

by Alicja Uliasz-Bocheńczyk and Eugeniusz Mokrzycki

Energies 2026, 19(3), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19030630 - 26 Jan 2026

Viewed by 625

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive characterization of bottom ash generated during biomass combustion in fluidized boilers, with a focus on its potential use in a circular economy. Two biomass bottom ash samples (BBA 1 and BBA 2) from commercial combined heat and power [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comprehensive characterization of bottom ash generated during biomass combustion in fluidized boilers, with a focus on its potential use in a circular economy. Two biomass bottom ash samples (BBA 1 and BBA 2) from commercial combined heat and power plants were tested. The scope of this study included the determination of chemical composition, phase composition, and leachability testing of selected impurities. The results showed that the bottom ashes tested are calcium silicate materials with varying proportions of calcium phases (anhydrite, portlandite, and calcite) and silica phases (quartz), depending on the type of biomass and combustion technology. Thermal analysis confirmed the presence of characteristic dehydration, decarbonation, and polymorphic transformations of quartz, with a low organic content. Leachability tests showed low mobility of most trace elements and heavy metals, with increased solubility of sulfates, chlorides, and alkali ions, typical for fluidized ash. The concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Hg in the eluates were low or below the limit of quantification, indicating the favorable chemical stability of the tested waste. The results obtained suggest that bottom ashes from biomass combustion in fluidized boilers may be a promising secondary raw material for engineering applications, especially in binding materials and bonded layers, and potentially also in selected agricultural applications, provided that the contents of sulfates, chlorides, and pH are controlled. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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14 pages, 1471 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Transformation Towards Climate Neutrality by 2050: The Case of Poland Based on CO₂ Emission Reduction in the Public Power Generation Sector

by Przemysław Kaszyński, Marcin Malec, Michał Fijołek and Jacek Kamiński

Energies 2026, 19(1), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19010118 - 25 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 812

Abstract

The European Union’s energy transition is based on three fundamental pillars, the realisation of which is intended to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. These pillars comprise the decarbonization of the economy, the development of renewable energy sources (RES), and the improvement of energy [...] Read more.

The European Union’s energy transition is based on three fundamental pillars, the realisation of which is intended to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. These pillars comprise the decarbonization of the economy, the development of renewable energy sources (RES), and the improvement of energy efficiency. The prevailing decarbonization trend involves a systematic reduction in the use of fossil fuels across the economy and their replacement with energy derived from low-emission and renewable sources. These objectives pose a significant challenge, particularly for countries such as Poland, where electricity generation remains predominantly reliant on hard coal and lignite. In recent years, a substantial reduction in CO₂ emissions has been observed in the energy sector, primarily due to the increasing share of renewables in the electricity generation mix. The main energy companies, most of which are majority-owned by the State Treasury, have developed specific strategies to meet these targets. This article analyses the strategic documents of domestic energy companies together with other publicly available sources. Based on these documents, projections have been developed regarding the decommissioning of individual generating units in public power plants and combined heat and power facilities fuelled by hard coal and lignite. Scenario-based analyses were then conducted, drawing on these projections and assumptions, to assess the potential scale of CO₂ emission reductions from the domestic energy sector through to 2050. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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21 pages, 1215 KB

Open AccessArticle

Underground Hydrogen Storage in the European Union: Regulatory Status, Gaps, and Recommendations

by Radosław Tarkowski, Piotr Tarkowski and Barbara Uliasz-Misiak

Energies 2025, 18(24), 6454; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18246454 - 10 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 914

Abstract

Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is emerging as a key enabler of the green energy transition, ensuring energy system stability and supporting large-scale integration of renewable sources. Despite its technological readiness, UHS deployment in Europe faces significant barriers due to the absence of a [...] Read more.

Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is emerging as a key enabler of the green energy transition, ensuring energy system stability and supporting large-scale integration of renewable sources. Despite its technological readiness, UHS deployment in Europe faces significant barriers due to the absence of a clear legal status and a dedicated regulatory framework. Current EU energy, climate, and environmental directives do not explicitly define hydrogen as a storage medium, creating legal ambiguity. Lessons from underground gas storage (UGS) and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) provide valuable reference points; however, direct transfer of these frameworks is insufficient due to hydrogen’s the distinct physicochemical characteristics and associated safety and monitoring challenges. Major regulatory gaps have been identified in legislation, liability, ownership, technical standards, and monitoring. To address these issues, a hybrid UHS model is proposed—combining the operational practices of UGS with the regulatory rigour of CCS—to accelerate safe and efficient implementation of UHS in Europe and support the broader transition to green energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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20 pages, 1342 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling the Impact of Hard Coal Mining Reduction on the Structure Energy Mix and Economy in an Inter-Industry Approach—A Case Study of Poland

by Monika Pepłowska, Stanisław Tokarski and Piotr Olczak

Energies 2025, 18(22), 6021; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18226021 - 18 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 756

Abstract

In Poland, the gradual reduction in hard coal mining represents a cornerstone of the energy transition and economic restructuring strategy, with all mines scheduled to close by 2049 under the Social Agreement. Given Poland’s strong reliance on coal, this process has far-reaching implications [...] Read more.

In Poland, the gradual reduction in hard coal mining represents a cornerstone of the energy transition and economic restructuring strategy, with all mines scheduled to close by 2049 under the Social Agreement. Given Poland’s strong reliance on coal, this process has far-reaching implications for energy security, employment, regional development, and macroeconomic stability. The aim of this study is to assess the role and scale of the hard coal mining sector’s contribution to GDP and to examine the consequences of its gradual decline for the national energy mix. In the input–output framework, a reduction in domestic hard coal supply is modelled as a shock to the output of the disaggregated hard coal sector, affecting both intermediate demand and value added through inter-industry linkages. The analysis applies an inter-industry input–output framework based on a decomposed Input–Output Table of Poland, where the aggregated “hard coal and lignite” branch was disaggregated into thermal hard coal, coking coal, and lignite. Reduction Variants (WR25%, WR50%, WR75%, and WR100%) were combined with Substitution Variant WS2, which assumes replacement of domestic hard coal with imported coal, natural gas, and electricity under varying price scenarios (−40% to +40% relative to reference levels). The Migration Variant was also included to account for labour market effects. This approach generated a set of 100 scenarios, reflecting possible pathways of Poland’s energy transition. The results demonstrate that in every scenario, reducing domestic hard coal supply leads to a decline in GDP. Losses range from −0.175% to −0.25% under WR25% scenarios to between −0.775% and −1.1% under WR100%, depending on the relative prices of imported substitutes. Substitution patterns are highly sensitive to price dynamics: under low natural gas prices, gas dominates the replacement mix (over 57% share), while under high gas prices, imported coal prevails (70–90%). Electricity imports consistently remain marginal. These outcomes highlight Poland’s structural dependence on coal, the vulnerability of GDP to external price shocks, and the limitations of substitution options. This study concludes that the reduction in domestic coal mining, though inevitable in the context of the EU climate policy, will not be economically neutral. It requires careful management of substitution pathways, diversification of the energy mix, and socio-economic support for coal regions. The input–output framework used in this research offers a robust tool for quantifying both direct and indirect effects of the coal phase-out, supporting evidence-based policy for a just and sustainable energy transition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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30 pages, 7290 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Optimization of a Hybrid Solar–Wind Energy System Using HOMER: A Case Study of L’Anse Au Loup

by Sujith Eswaran and Ashraf Ali Khan

Energies 2025, 18(21), 5794; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18215794 - 3 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2049

Abstract

The rural community of L’Anse au Loup in southern Labrador depends on a long-distance transmission link to Hydro-Québec for its electricity supply, with diesel generation as backup during outages. This dependence raises electricity costs, exposes the community to supply disruptions, and limits control [...] Read more.

The rural community of L’Anse au Loup in southern Labrador depends on a long-distance transmission link to Hydro-Québec for its electricity supply, with diesel generation as backup during outages. This dependence raises electricity costs, exposes the community to supply disruptions, and limits control over local energy security. This study evaluates the feasibility of a solar–wind hybrid energy system to reduce imported electricity and improve supply reliability. A detailed site assessment identified a 50-hectare area north of the community as suitable for system installation, offering adequate space and minimal land-use conflict. Using Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources (HOMER Pro 3.18.3) software, the analysis modeled local load data, renewable resource profiles, and financial parameters to determine the optimal grid-connected configuration. The optimized design installs 19.25 MW of photovoltaic (PV) and 4.62 MW of wind capacity, supported by inverters and maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to ensure stable operation. Simulations show that the hybrid system supplies about 70% of annual demand, cuts greenhouse gas emissions by more than 95% compared with conventional generation, and lowers long-term energy costs. The results confirm that the proposed configuration can strengthen local energy security and provide a replicable framework for other remote and coastal communities in Newfoundland and Labrador pursuing decarbonization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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21 pages, 2961 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying the Capacity Credits of Intermittent Renewables: Implications for Power System Planning

by Marcin Pluta and Artur Wyrwa

Energies 2025, 18(21), 5636; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18215636 - 27 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1647

Abstract

The European Union’s objective of climate neutrality by 2050 requires a profound transformation of national power systems. In Poland, this transition involves reducing coal-based generation and expanding variable renewable energy sources (VRES), particularly wind and solar. Between 2020 and 2025, onshore wind capacity [...] Read more.

The European Union’s objective of climate neutrality by 2050 requires a profound transformation of national power systems. In Poland, this transition involves reducing coal-based generation and expanding variable renewable energy sources (VRES), particularly wind and solar. Between 2020 and 2025, onshore wind capacity increased from 5.9 GW to nearly 11 GW, and solar from 1.6 GW to over 22 GW, while peak electricity demand in 2024 exceeded 28 GW. Although VRES- are essential for decarbonization, their variability poses challenges for system adequacy. This study assessed the adequacy contribution of onshore wind and solar power plants using capacity credit as a key indicator. Two approaches were applied: a deterministic Load Duration Curve (LDC) method and probabilistic methods—Effective Load Carrying Capability (ELCC) and Equivalent Firm Capacity (EFC)—based on historical data from 2021–2024. The results show that capacity credits for onshore wind ranged from 8.08% to 17.27%, and for solar from 1.82% to 6.60%, depending on the method and year. Despite the presence of 1.7 GW of pumped storage and 4.4 GW of battery storage contracted in the capacity market, the relatively low VRES capacity credits underline the continued need for flexible, dispatchable generation. The findings highlight the importance of accurate capacity credit estimation to guide investment in renewables, storage, and backup capacity, thereby supporting a secure and reliable energy transition in Poland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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27 pages, 6102 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Impact of Wind Speed on Electricity Prices in the Polish Day-Ahead Market Since 2016, and Its Applicability to Machine-Learning-Powered Price Prediction

by Rafał Sowiński and Aleksandra Komorowska

Energies 2025, 18(14), 3749; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18143749 - 15 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1571

Abstract

The rising share of wind generation in power systems, driven by the need to decarbonise the energy sector, is changing the relationship between wind speed and electricity prices. In the case of Poland, this relationship has not been thoroughly investigated, particularly in the [...] Read more.

The rising share of wind generation in power systems, driven by the need to decarbonise the energy sector, is changing the relationship between wind speed and electricity prices. In the case of Poland, this relationship has not been thoroughly investigated, particularly in the aftermath of the restrictive legal changes introduced in 2016, which halted numerous onshore wind investments. Studying this relationship remains necessary to understand the broader market effects of wind speed on electricity prices, especially considering evolving policies and growing interest in renewable energy integration. In this context, this paper analyses wind speed, wind generation, and other relevant datasets in relation to electricity prices using multiple statistical methods, including correlation analysis, regression modelling, and artificial neural networks. The results show that wind speed is a significant factor in setting electricity prices (with a correlation coefficient reaching up to −0.7). The findings indicate that not only is it important to include wind speed as an electricity price indicator, but it is also worth investing in wind generation, since higher wind output can be translated into lower electricity prices. This study contributes to a better understanding of how natural variability in renewable resources translates into electricity market outcomes under policy-constrained conditions. Its innovative aspect lies in combining statistical and machine learning techniques to quantify the influence of wind speed on electricity prices, using updated data from a period of regulatory stagnation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Energy Storage Systems)

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