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Children
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Parental Mental Health and Child Development
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Parental Mental Health and Child Development

A special issue of Children (ISSN 2227-9067). This special issue belongs to the section "Pediatric Mental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 January 2026) | Viewed by 11067

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Dimitrios Papadopoulos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Early Years Learning and Care, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece
Interests: child development and mental health; developmental psychology and psycho-pathology; gifted and high-ability children; autism spectrum disorder; parenting; developmental disabilities
Prof. Dr. Katerina Maniadaki

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Social Work, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece
Interests: developmental psychopathology; ADHD; learning difficulties; anxiety disorders; risk and resilience factors; early intervention

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mental health problems in both mothers and fathers, including postpartum depression, parental stress, and anxiety arising from diverse biopsychosocial, and environmental causes, can affect their parenting capacity and the way a child thinks, feels or behaves. Consequently, children may be vulnerable to developing mental health problems themselves and this may elevate the risk for psychological and behavioral challenges, along with academic underachievement and other adverse outcomes. Optimal parental mental health and positive parenting can influence a child's development and well-being from the prenatal period through childhood and adolescence, hence strengthening parent–child attachment and bonding. This, in turn, promotes parenting practices that cultivate secure relationships and emotional regulation skills in the child.

This Special Issue entitled “Parental Mental Health and Child Development” aims to gather high-quality research examining the impact of parental mental health and familial factors on child development, from infancy to adolescence, as well as how children's activities and behaviors may impose emotional strain and pressure on parents, which in turn impacts the care provided to the child. This Special Issue addresses several aspects of child development, encompassing cognitive growth, socioemotional and personality development, academic performance, and social relationships. We encourage authors to incorporate several methodological approaches, including cross-sectional designs, longitudinal studies, qualitative and mixed-methods research. Furthermore, the inclusion of studies that connect theory and practice, such as interventions involving parents and children, is recommended. Additionally, literature reviews, encompassing scoping reviews and systematic reviews that examine the interplay between parental mental health and its effects on child developmental outcomes, are encouraged. We expect this Special Issue to yield significant theoretical advances and meaningful research implications for practice.

Dr. Dimitrios Papadopoulos
Prof. Dr. Katerina Maniadaki
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Children is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • child development
  • developmental psychology and psychopathology
  • parenting
  • mental health
  • family
  • positive development
  • cognition
  • emotion
  • behavior
  • wellbeing

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 633 KB  
Article
Parental Burnout and Early-Childhood Behavioral Problems: Longitudinal Associations Beyond Maternal Depression
by Anna Suarez and Vera Yakupova
Children 2026, 13(2), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13020176 - 27 Jan 2026
Abstract
Background: Parenting is increasingly recognized as a highly demanding and stressful role that, in the absence of sufficient resources, may lead to parental burnout (PB). This risk may be particularly pronounced in the Russian context, where limited access to childcare for children under [...] Read more.
Background: Parenting is increasingly recognized as a highly demanding and stressful role that, in the absence of sufficient resources, may lead to parental burnout (PB). This risk may be particularly pronounced in the Russian context, where limited access to childcare for children under three and reduced extended family support coincide with strong social expectations of intensive parenting. Although PB and maternal depression frequently co-occur, it remains unclear whether PB exerts a unique influence on child development, especially during toddlerhood. The present study examined the association between PB and behavioral problems in children aged 1.5 to 4 years while controlling for maternal depression assessed both during the first year postpartum and concurrently with PB. Methods: Using a longitudinal design, maternal mental health was assessed within the first 12 months postpartum (Stage 1) and again at follow-up (Stage 2), on average 2.24 years later, in 419 Russian mother–child dyads. Mothers completed measures of postpartum depression (PPD) (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale), current depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory-II), and PB (Parental Burnout Inventory). Child emotional and behavioral problems were assessed at Stage 2 using the Russian version of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/1½–5). Results: Mothers of children with borderline/clinically significant internalizing, externalizing, and total problems had significantly higher PB, PPD, and present maternal depressive symptoms, although the effect sizes were small. PB was strongly associated with all domains of child behavioral problems, also after correction for both postpartum and present depressive symptoms, as well as for other important covariates. Higher maternal PB symptoms further increased the odds of children having borderline/clinically significant internalizing and externalizing problems, although those effects were not independent of maternal depression. In turn, neither postpartum nor present maternal depressive symptoms were associated with any of the child behavioral problems domains. Conclusions: PB represents a distinct and clinically relevant risk factor for emotional and behavioral problems in toddlers, beyond the effects of maternal postpartum or present depression, in a context characterized by high caregiving demands and limited institutional support. These findings highlight an urgent need for programs aimed at identifying and supporting families in which parents experience high levels of exhaustion, regardless of whether they meet the criteria for other diagnosable mental health disorders. Addressing PB during toddlerhood may be critical for protecting both parental well-being and early child development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
33 pages, 2598 KB  
Article
Using Co-Design to Adapt a Digital Parenting Program for Parents Seeking Mental Health Support
by Meg Louise Bennett, Ling Wu, Joshua Paolo Seguin, Patrick Olivier, Andrea Reupert, Anthony F. Jorm, Sylvia Grant, Helen Vaxevanis, Mingye Li, Jue Xie and Marie Bee Hui Yap
Children 2026, 13(1), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13010129 - 15 Jan 2026
Viewed by 240
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Parental mental health challenges are associated with parenting difficulties and child mental health issues. Parenting interventions can support families; however, parents with mental health challenges face barriers to accessing parenting support, which is not consistently offered within adult mental health settings. [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Parental mental health challenges are associated with parenting difficulties and child mental health issues. Parenting interventions can support families; however, parents with mental health challenges face barriers to accessing parenting support, which is not consistently offered within adult mental health settings. Embedding technology-assisted parenting programs into these settings could provide accessible, holistic support. Partners in Parenting Kids (PiP Kids) is a digital parenting program designed to prevent child anxiety and depression, yet its suitability for parents with mental health challenges and fit within mental health services remains unclear. This study aimed to co-design and adapt PiP Kids for future implementation in an Australian adult mental health service. Methods: Parents who recently sought mental health support (n = 8) and service providers (n = 7) participated in co-design workshops to explore needs and preferences for a technology-assisted parenting program and iteratively develop a prototype. Parents (n = 3) trialled the online component of the prototype and participated in qualitative interviews to assess acceptability. Results: The adapted clinician-supported program was designed to facilitate (1) parent and clinician readiness for parenting support; (2) emotional and social support for parents and clinicians; (3) practical, personalised parenting knowledge; (4) parent-led empowerment; and (5) accessible, integrated support. Prototype clinician training was developed to strengthen the clinician-support component. Parents indicated initial acceptability of the online prototype while reiterating the value of including face-to-face support. Conclusions: This study co-designed an online, clinician-supported parenting program for future embedding within adult mental health settings. The findings highlight key considerations for developing and implementing technology-assisted interventions that promote family-focused care for parents seeking mental health support. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
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26 pages, 1198 KB  
Article
Effects of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy on Parental Mental Health and Child Behavior in Families of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial
by Dimitrios Papadopoulos and Katerina Maniadaki
Children 2026, 13(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13010053 - 30 Dec 2025
Viewed by 396
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Caring for a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is often associated with elevated psychological distress and reduced life satisfaction. Mindfulness-based interventions may offer substantial benefits by enhancing emotion regulation, reducing maladaptive cognitive patterns, and strengthening mindful parenting. This randomized controlled [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Caring for a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is often associated with elevated psychological distress and reduced life satisfaction. Mindfulness-based interventions may offer substantial benefits by enhancing emotion regulation, reducing maladaptive cognitive patterns, and strengthening mindful parenting. This randomized controlled trial (RCT) examined the effectiveness of an eight-week Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) program, enriched with mindful parenting practices, delivered to parents of children with ASD. The primary aim was to improve parental mental health, while secondary analyses explored potential indirect, parent-perceived changes in child behavior outcomes. Methods: Fifty-six parents of children with ASD were randomly assigned to an MBCT intervention group (n = 30) or a waitlist control group (n = 26). Parents completed assessments at baseline (T0), post-intervention (T1), and at one-month follow-up (T2), including the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales–21 (DASS-21), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). They also rated the overall severity of their child’s behavior problems to explore indirect treatment effects. Results: All parents receiving MBCT (100%) completed the program successfully and reported high acceptability. At baseline, no significant differences were observed between groups. At T1, the MBCT group demonstrated significant reductions in depression, anxiety, and stress, alongside increases in positive affect and life satisfaction. These improvements were maintained or strengthened at T2. However, the control group showed no significant changes over time. Additionally, parents in the MBCT group reported indirect improvements in their children’s behavioral adjustment at T1 and T2. Conclusions: Findings demonstrate that MBCT constitutes an effective intervention for reducing parental psychopathology and indirectly supporting parent-perceived improvements in child behavior, emphasizing the importance of incorporating mindfulness and mindful parenting components into family-centered interventions for parents of children with ASD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
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17 pages, 477 KB  
Article
COVID-19 Stress and Family Well-Being: The Role of Sleep in Mental Health Outcomes for Parents and Children
by Alzena Ilie, Andy J. Kim, Danika DesRoches, Elizabeth Keys, Simon B. Sherry, Sherry H. Stewart, S. Hélène Deacon and Penny V. Corkum
Children 2025, 12(8), 962; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12080962 - 22 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1636
Abstract
Background/Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic introduced various stressors for families, including changes to daily routines, work, and schooling. Studies have linked these stressors to increased mental health challenges for parents and children. Sleep difficulties were also common during the pandemic, with some children and [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic introduced various stressors for families, including changes to daily routines, work, and schooling. Studies have linked these stressors to increased mental health challenges for parents and children. Sleep difficulties were also common during the pandemic, with some children and parents experiencing poorer sleep quality and shorter sleep duration. However, it remains unclear whether the effects of COVID-19 stress on mental health challenges are explained, at least in part, by effects of COVID-19 stress on child and/or parent sleep challenges. This study examined the impacts of COVID-19 stress on sleep and, in turn, mental health difficulties in school-aged children and their parents in Canada and the United States. Methods: Parents (N = 961) completed validated measures of COVID-19 stress, and of their own and their child’s sleep and mental health. Path analyses tested direct and indirect effects of COVID-19 stress on mental health outcomes with sleep problems as the potential mediator. Results: Child sleep problems partially mediated COVID-19 stress effects on both parent (β = 0.33) and child (β = 0.20) mental health difficulties, while parent sleep problems contributed significantly but to a lesser degree (parent mental health: β = 0.07; child mental health: β = 0.03). There also remained significant direct effects of COVID-19 stress on both child and parent mental health difficulties that were not mediated through sleep difficulties. Conclusions: Our findings underscore the interconnected nature of sleep and mental health, demonstrating that stress-related disruptions in sleep (particularly children’s sleep) can exacerbate mental health difficulties for both parents and children during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
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25 pages, 658 KB  
Article
Parenting Under Pressure: The Transformative Impact of PCIT on Caregiver Depression and Anxiety and Child Outcomes
by Abigail Peskin, Alexis Landa, Juliana Acosta, William Andrew Rothenberg, Rachel Levi, Eileen Davis, Dainelys Garcia, Jason F. Jent and Elana Mansoor
Children 2025, 12(7), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12070922 - 11 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1725
Abstract
Background Objectives: Parental anxiety and depression demonstrate bidirectional connections with child developmental outcomes (e.g., disruptive behavior). Directly targeting child development through behavioral parent training (BPT) has potential for reversing this cycle. Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT), a BPT with robust research evidence for decreasing [...] Read more.
Background Objectives: Parental anxiety and depression demonstrate bidirectional connections with child developmental outcomes (e.g., disruptive behavior). Directly targeting child development through behavioral parent training (BPT) has potential for reversing this cycle. Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT), a BPT with robust research evidence for decreasing child disruptive behaviors, has demonstrated promise in also decreasing caregiver anxiety and depression. However, the mechanisms that explain this relationship are less understood. Methods: The current study examined whether caregivers (N = 840) completing time-limited PCIT experienced significant reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms and improvements in child disruptive behaviors at each time point. Generalized estimate equation analyses assessed whether caregiver anxiety and depression moderated changes in child disruptive behavior. Mediation analyses explored the extent that changes in caregiver–child interactions over time explained changes in family outcomes. Results: Child disruptive behavior and caregiver depression and anxiety symptoms improved significantly at each time point of PCIT. Change in child behavioral outcomes was significantly moderated by caregiver race. Caregivers with higher anxiety reported fewer improvements in child disruptive behavior compared to other caregivers. Changes in caregiver anxiety and depression over the course of treatment were partially mediated by improvement in caregiver–child interaction skills. Changes in child disruptive behavior were not mediated by improvement in caregiver–child interaction skills. Conclusions: Results demonstrate that time-limited PCIT could significantly improve caregiver anxiety and depression, and some PCIT-taught parenting skills are direct drivers of this process. Further research is needed to understand other mechanisms underlying the relationship between PCIT and improved family outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
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13 pages, 324 KB  
Article
Mediating Role of Parental Support in the Relationship Between Immigrant Mothers’ Mental Health and Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
by Yeseul Jeong and Sangyoun Jang
Children 2025, 12(6), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12060677 - 24 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3312
Abstract
Background/Objectives: This study aimed to identify the mediating effect of parental support on the relationship between immigrant mothers’ mental health and adolescents’ self-esteem. Methods: This study utilized data from 1077 Korean multicultural adolescents and their immigrant mothers from the 9th Multicultural Adolescents Panel [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: This study aimed to identify the mediating effect of parental support on the relationship between immigrant mothers’ mental health and adolescents’ self-esteem. Methods: This study utilized data from 1077 Korean multicultural adolescents and their immigrant mothers from the 9th Multicultural Adolescents Panel data obtained in 2019. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation, Baron and Kenny’s regression analysis, and bootstrapping using the process macro. Results: Immigrant mothers’ mental health was significantly and positively associated with their adolescents’ self-esteem (r = 0.14, p < 0.001), and parental support was also significantly and positively associated with adolescents’ self-esteem (r = 0.50, p < 0.001). Parental support had a mediating effect on immigrant mothers’ mental health and adolescents’ self-esteem. Conclusions: The self-esteem of adolescents from multicultural families was found to be influenced by the mental health and support of their immigrant mothers. These findings highlight the mediating role of parental support in the relationship between immigrant mothers’ mental health and adolescents’ self-esteem, contributing to a deeper theoretical understanding of family dynamics in multicultural contexts. Therefore, these factors should be considered when developing parent education programs for immigrant mothers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
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Review

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26 pages, 992 KB  
Review
Emotion and Feeling in Parent–Child Dyads: Neurocognitive and Psychophysiological Pathways of Development
by Antonios I. Christou and Flora Bacopoulou
Children 2025, 12(11), 1478; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12111478 - 2 Nov 2025
Viewed by 2511
Abstract
Although widely used across disciplines, the terms emotion and feeling remain conceptually ambiguous, particularly within developmental science. Emotion is defined as an evolutionarily conserved, biologically embedded system of action readiness and intersubjective communication, shaped by attentional, neural, and physiological reactivity to environmental salience. [...] Read more.
Although widely used across disciplines, the terms emotion and feeling remain conceptually ambiguous, particularly within developmental science. Emotion is defined as an evolutionarily conserved, biologically embedded system of action readiness and intersubjective communication, shaped by attentional, neural, and physiological reactivity to environmental salience. In contrast, feeling is conceptualized as the consciously experienced, representational outcome of emotional activation, emerging through cognitive appraisal and symbolic processing. Building upon this distinction, the review explores how emotion develops within parent–child dyads through coregulated neurocognitive and psychophysiological mechanisms. Drawing on empirical evidence from eye-tracking studies of visual attention to emotional faces, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) research on social-emotional activation in prefrontal brain regions, and cortisol-based assessments of hormonal synchrony, the paper highlights how emotional attunement and transmission are embedded in early caregiving interactions. The review also emphasizes the moderating role of environmental sensitivity—both in children and parents—in shaping these developmental pathways. By positioning emotion as a dynamic, intersubjective process and feeling as its emergent experiential correlate, this review offers a novel developmental framework for understanding affect and proposes directions for future research on resilience, dysregulation, and intervention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
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Other

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20 pages, 349 KB  
Systematic Review
Socio-Emotional Wellbeing in Parents of Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review
by Mª Lourdes Álvarez-Fernández and Celestino Rodríguez
Children 2026, 13(1), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13010099 - 9 Jan 2026
Viewed by 254
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) require contextual approaches emphasizing family roles. Parents of children with NDDs face a complex socio-emotional reality. They may experience high levels of stress, fatigue, depression, and feelings of guilt and uncertainty, and they are often left feeling isolated and [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) require contextual approaches emphasizing family roles. Parents of children with NDDs face a complex socio-emotional reality. They may experience high levels of stress, fatigue, depression, and feelings of guilt and uncertainty, and they are often left feeling isolated and unsupported. All of these factors increase their socio-emotional vulnerability and affect their children’s wellbeing. A significant part of the available evidence has focused on parents of typically developing children or on a single construct. For these reasons, and considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the aim of this study was to review interventions targeting the improvement of the socio-emotional wellbeing of parents of children with NDDs, in order to characterise recent research, the specific constructs addressed, and the effectiveness of interventions. Methods: No prior protocol/registration. ERIC and Web of Science databases (selected for their broad multidisciplinary coverage in psychology and social sciences) were searched from 2020–2025 (last search: 7 September 2025), limited to English/Spanish publications. Inclusion criteria encompassed parents/primary family caregivers of children with NDDs receiving socio-emotional programs. Two independent reviewers screened the titles/abstracts and full texts, resolving disagreements through discussion. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this systematic review employed narrative synthesis without risk-of-bias assessment and included 16 studies (approximately, 1100 participants). Results: The analysis indicated a scarce but growing scientific output, with a complex methodological landscape showing promising preliminary convergence in intervention outcomes. Interventions effects appeared mediated by cultural suitability, accessibility, and contextual alignment. Conclusions: Future work should pursue multisystemic approaches engaging diverse societal contexts and agents to optimize child and family wellbeing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parental Mental Health and Child Development)
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