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The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Ceramics (ISSN 2571-6131).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 July 2026 | Viewed by 14711

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Dr. Kinga Korniejenko

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Institute of Material Engineering, Faculty of Material Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Jana Pawła II 37, 31-864 Cracow, Poland
Interests: geopolymer; geopolymer composites; circular economy; additive manufacturing
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Dr. Katarzyna Łoś

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Department of Material Science, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic
Interests: building materials; geopolymer composites; geopolymer application; additive manufacturing; circular economy
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Dr. Aleksandar Nikolov

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Institute of Mineralogy and Crystallography, Bulgarian Academy of Science (IMC-BAS), Acad. G. Bonchev Str., bl. 107, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
Interests: geopolymer; geopolymer composites; zeolites; antibacterial coatings
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Following the success of our previous Special Issue, we are pleased to announce a Second Edition of the Special Issue titled “The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition”.

In the Second Edition, we would like to stress the environmental aspects connected with geopolymer materials. Geopolymers have emerged as a key class of materials that contribute to a more sustainable future. Their ability to utilize industrial by-products, reduce CO₂ emissions, and offer enhanced durability positions them as a crucial solution in the transition toward a circular economy. Over the past decade, significant advancements have been made in the synthesis, characterization, and application of geopolymers, highlighting their potential across multiple industries, including construction, waste management, energy storage, and environmental remediation.

This Special Issue aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent developments in geopolymer science and technology, emphasizing their role in sustainability and circular economy principles. We invite researchers to submit original research articles, reviews, and short communications on topics including, but not limited to, the following:

Development of geopolymer binders from industrial by-products (e.g., fly ash, slag, red mud);
Alkali-activated materials and alternative activators;
Characterization and durability of geopolymers in diverse environments;
Mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of geopolymers;
Geopolymer composites and functionalized materials;
Applications in construction, infrastructure, and advanced engineering;
Geopolymers for carbon capture and environmental remediation;
3D printing and additive manufacturing of geopolymer-based materials;
Life cycle assessment and sustainability metrics of geopolymer systems.

By gathering contributions from leading experts, we aim to showcase the latest research advancing the field of geopolymers while reinforcing their impact on sustainable development and resource efficiency.

We look forward to receiving your submissions and contributing to the global conversation on sustainable materials.

Best regards,

Dr. Kinga Korniejenko
Dr. Katarzyna Łoś
Dr. Aleksandar Nikolov
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Ceramics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

geopolymer
geopolymerization
alkaline activation
additive manufacturing of geopolymers
geopolymer composites
circular economy

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Related Special Issue

The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers in Ceramics (6 articles)

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

18 pages, 2070 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Performance Magnetic Mining Waste-Based Geopolymeric Membrane Coated with Silver Molybdate: Processing, Characterization, and Filtration Behavior

by Daniela Gier Della Rocca, Victor de Aguiar Pedott, Fernanda Cristina Fraga, Adriano da Silva, Rosely Aparecida Peralta, Enrique Rodríguez-Castellón, Natália Ueda Yamaguchi, Bruno Francisco Oechsler and Regina de Fátima Peralta Muniz Moreira

Ceramics 2026, 9(4), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics9040038 - 29 Mar 2026

Viewed by 339

Abstract

Membrane technology is a highly efficient, cost-effective, and chemical-free process, leading to its widespread application across various fields. However, the high capital cost of traditional ceramic benchmarks remains a barrier. This study addresses this challenge by engineering a low-cost, waste-derived geopolymeric membrane functionalized with a silver molybdate (Ag₂MoO₄) catalytic coating for the removal of trimethoprim (TMP), a persistent emerging contaminant. Systematic filtration assays for the removal of TMP (100 mg·L⁻¹, pH 4) revealed the role of the Ag₂MoO₄ layer as a performance intensifier, yielding a 26% increase in initial permeate flux and a 33% improvement in the selectivity compared to the pristine support, while maintaining robust rejection efficiency. Comprehensive characterization attributes these enhancements to synergistic effects between increased surface hydrophilicity and favorable solute–catalyst interfacial interactions. Furthermore, a fouling analysis using Hermia’s models indicated the simultaneous operation of multiple blocking mechanisms, a phenomenon linked to the non-uniform nature of the coating and subsequent formation of preferential flow paths. Overall, the incorporation of the silver molybdate coating effectively improved the membrane’s flux performance and selectivity. These findings demonstrate that integrating catalytic coatings onto waste-based geopolymer frameworks provides a scalable, circular-economy-aligned strategy for advanced wastewater treatment, balancing high-flux performance with the efficient removal of recalcitrant pharmaceuticals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2148 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Performance Geopolymer-Based Granulated Adsorbents for Selective Sorption of Radioactive Cesium and Strontium

by Chung-Yung Lin, Yu-Chang Liu and Bang-Lun Jhou

Ceramics 2026, 9(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics9020021 - 9 Feb 2026

Viewed by 650

Abstract

The selective removal of radioactive cesium-137 and strontium-90 from high-salinity radioactive wastewater remains a critical challenge, as competing ions reduce adsorption efficiency and selectivity. In this study, high-performance granulated adsorbents were developed based on alkali-activated geopolymer matrices to enhance sorption performance. The adsorbents were synthesized by inorganic polymerization, and mechanically robust granules with controlled porosity and surface chemistry were obtained. Batch sorption experiments conducted in simulated seawater demonstrated greater than 99% removal efficiencies for cesium and strontium. Isotherm modeling confirmed high maximum sorption capacities (up to 0.41 meq/g for Cs⁺ and 5.07 meq/g for Sr²⁺). Continuous fixed-bed column tests demonstrated sustained removal efficiencies for the optimized adsorbents. Structural analyses, including scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy mapping, and X-ray diffraction, confirmed uniform elemental distribution and crystalline phases consistent with selective sorption mechanisms. Assessment of mechanical strength revealed sufficient compressive strengths to ensure operational durability under hydraulic stress. These findings demonstrate that the synthesized geopolymer-based granules are a potentially effective and versatile solution for the comprehensive treatment of radioactive wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2863 KB

Open AccessArticle

Calcium Effect in PLR–PCR Geopolymers: Peak Compressive Strength at 30% PCR and Evidence of C-A-S-H/N-A-S-H Synergy

by Oscar Graos-Alva, Aldo Castillo-Chung, Juan Carlos Rodríguez-Soto, Carlos Vásquez-Boyer and Alexander Vega-Anticona

Ceramics 2026, 9(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics9020019 - 5 Feb 2026

Viewed by 629

Abstract

Valorizing construction and demolition waste (CDW) via alkaline activation enables low-carbon binders. This study assesses binary geopolymers formulated with recycled brick powder (PLR) and recycled concrete powder (PCR) in seven precursor ratios (0–100% PCR), activated with a ternary NaOH/Na₂SiO₃/KOH solution (silicate modulus M_s ≈ 3.2) at L/B = 0.15, and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days. Compressive strength (fc), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) were used to link microstructure–phases–properties. A local maximum in fc at ~30% PCR (16.2 MPa at 28 d) was observed versus 0% PCR (14.2 MPa) and ≥50% PCR (13.8 → 10.1 MPa at 28 d). XRD indicated a reduction in inherited crystalline phases and an increased amorphous fraction at ~30% PCR; FTIR (normalized peak position and FWHM of the T–O–Si band, not absolute intensity) suggested higher network extension; SEM-EDS (local/semiquantitative) showed a moderate rise in Ca that supports C-A-S-H domains bridging the N-A-S-H network. At a high PCR, excess Ca simplified mineralogy (quartz/portlandite dominance), promoted competitive routes (C-S-H/carbonation), reintroduced microdefects, and reduced fc. A theoretical oxide balance per mix identified a compositional window where Ca/(Si + Al) ≈ 0.35–0.45 coincides with the mechanical optimum and with XRD/FTIR tracers. Overall, a ~30% PCR window maximizes co-reticulation of N-A-S-H/C-A-S-H and densification without compromising aluminosilicate continuity, providing transferrable design and process-control criteria for CDW-based geopolymer binders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 8972 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism and Optimization of Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Grout Under High Water-to-Solid Ratio: Steel Slag as a Calcareous Source

by Lijuan He, Yuhang Huang, Jianhua Zhou, Yi Wang, Jingwei Yang, Xuan Liu, Shuping Wang and Zhigang Zhang

Ceramics 2026, 9(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics9010009 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 384

Abstract

This study systematically examines the fluidity, setting time, mechanical properties, and microstructural evolution of metakaolin-based geopolymer grouting materials with a relatively high water-to-solid (W/S) ratio window. A four-factor, three-level orthogonal experimental design was employed to identify the dominant factors and main effect trends of W/S ratio, alkali dosage, water glass modulus (Ms, molar ratio of SiO₂ to Na₂O in alkali solution), and steel slag content on the material’s performance. The results indicated that the W/S ratio predominantly governed fluidity, while the alkali content was the primary controlling factor for setting time and early-age strength. An intermediate range of water glass modulus with a value of 1.6 provided balanced performance. The incorporation of steel slag with a range of 10–20% showed an age-dependent contribution: it not only tended to improve the rheology of the paste but also the later-age strength. XRD, FTIR, and SEM/EDS results suggested that the hardened binders were dominated by amorphous products, where alumimosilicate gel (N-A-S-H) and Ca-containing gel (C-S-H/C-A-S-H) may coexist depending on calcium availability and activator chemistry. The proposed parameter ranges are valid within the studied design space and provide guidance for the mix design of high-W/S geopolymer grout. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 3918 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fayalite-Based Geopolymer Foam

by Aleksandar Nikolov, Mihail Tarassov, Ivan Rostovsky, Miryana Raykovska, Ivan Georgiev and Kinga Korniejenko

Ceramics 2025, 8(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020077 - 19 Jun 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1219

Abstract

The present work is the first study exploring the potential of geopolymer foams based on fayalite slag, an industrial by-product, as the primary precursor, for lightweight and fireproof construction applications. The research involved the synthesis and characterization of geopolymer foams with varying water to solid ratio, followed by testing their physical and mechanical properties. The phase composition and microstructure of the obtained geopolymer foams were examined using powder XRD, Micro-CT and SEM. The geopolymer foams at optimal water to solid ratio (0.15) demonstrated 73.2% relative porosity, 0.92 g/cm³ apparent density and 1.3 MPa compressive strength. The use of an air-entraining admixture improved compressive strength to 2.8 MPa but lowered the relative porosity to 64.5%. Real-size lightweight panel (300 × 300 × 30 mm) specimens were prepared to measure thermal conductivity coefficient (0.243 W/mK) and evaluate size effect and the reaction to direct fire. This study demonstrates the successful preparation of geopolymer foam products containing 81% fayalite slag, highlighting its potential as a lightweight, insulating and fire-resistant material for sustainable construction applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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37 pages, 8780 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Self-Healing Geopolymer Concrete Incorporating Recycled Plastic, Brick Waste, and Bacillus sphaericus

by Tamer I. Ahmed, Ahmed S. Rashed and Dina E. Tobbala

Ceramics 2025, 8(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020072 - 17 Jun 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4037

Abstract

This research aims to develop self-healing geopolymer concrete (SHG) to address the limitations of conventional repair methods, including reduced thermal conductivity and density, while promoting sustainable construction. The incorporation of the self-healing method (SHM), crushed brick (CB), and minced water bottles (F-PET) resulted in reduced thermal conductivity, maintenance costs, and environmental impact. This study investigated the effects of varying amounts of CB, F-PET, and SHM on several properties, including flowability, setting times, densities, ductility index (DI), and mechanical strengths, across 13 different mixtures. Additionally, water absorption (WA%), residual weight loss (WL%), and relative dynamic modulus of elasticity (RDME%) were assessed following freeze–thaw cycles, alongside SEM analysis and thermal transport measurements of the SHG mixtures. The inclusion of up to 50% CB enhanced density and thermal conductivity but negatively affected other properties. In contrast, incorporating 25% F-PET led to modest improvements in mechanical, thermal, and durability properties; however, it did not reduce density and thermal conductivity as effectively as CB. Among the three mixtures containing both CB and F-PET, the formulation with 37.5% CB and 12.5% F-PET exhibited the lowest density (1650 kg/m³) and thermal conductivity (1.083 W/m·K). The self-healing capacity of SHM was demonstrated through its ability to close cracks, facilitated by the deposition of CaCO₃ under combined durability conditions. Incorporating 2%, 3%, and 4% SHM into the 37.5% CB and 12.5% F-PET mixture significantly improved key properties, including strength, water absorption, freeze–thaw resistance, SEM characteristics, density, and thermal conductivity. The addition of 4% SHM enhanced the mechanical performance of the geopolymer concrete (GVC) after 28 days, resulting in increases of 27% in compressive strength, 40.5% in tensile strength, 81% in flexural strength, and 61.6% in ductility index. Further, the inclusion of SHM improved density, reduced WA% and WL%, and enhanced RDME% after 300 freeze–thaw cycles. Specifically, thermal conductivity decreased from 1.8 W/m·K to 0.88 W/m·K, and density reduced from 2480 kg/m³ to 1760 kg/m³. Meanwhile, WA%, WL%, and RDME% improved from 3%, 4.5%, and 45% to 2%, 2.5%, and 50%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 7919 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Recycling Face Mask Fibers in Geopolymer-Based Matrices for Sustainable Building Materials

by Roberto Ercoli, Paola Stabile, Elena Ossoli, Irene Luconi, Alberto Renzulli and Eleonora Paris

Ceramics 2025, 8(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020054 - 12 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1612

Abstract

This study investigates the upcycling of disposable face masks, which were produced in vast quantities during the COVID-19 pandemic and are now widely stockpiled in public institutions, destined for landfills after reaching expiration dates. The research focuses on incorporating shredded mask fibers into geopolymer matrices, evaluating the effects on mechanical and thermal properties to develop sustainable, high-performance materials. This approach addresses critical environmental, social, and economic challenges by transforming problematic waste into valuable resources while promoting sustainable building practices, such as developing insulating products for the construction industry. Mechanical testing demonstrated that adding shredded mask fibers (2 mm and 6 mm in size, up to 5 wt.%) enhanced the flexural strength of geopolymeric products. The optimal performance was achieved by adding 3 wt.% of 2 mm-length fibers, resulting in a flexural strength of 4.56 ± 0.23 MPa. Regarding compressive strength, the highest value (54.78 ± 2.08 MPa) was recorded in geopolymers containing 1 wt.% of 2 mm fibers. Thermal insulation properties of the materials improved with higher mask content, as evidenced by reductions in thermal conductivity, diffusivity, and specific heat. The lowest thermal conductivity values were observed in geopolymers containing 5 wt.% (0.4346 ± 0.0043 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) and 3 wt.% (0.6514 ± 0.0002 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) of 2 mm mask fibers. To further enhance thermal insulation, geopolymers with 5 wt.% mask fibers were foamed using H₂O₂ to obtain highly porous light materials, obtaining a reduction of thermal conductivity (0.3456 and 0.3710 ± 0.0007 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). This research highlights the potential of integrating fibrous waste materials into advanced construction technologies, offering solutions for waste reduction and development in the building sector toward sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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Review

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24 pages, 1901 KB

Open AccessReview

Limitations and Research Priorities in 3D-Printed Geopolymer Concrete: A Perspective Contribution

by Jyotirmoy Mishra, Adewumi John Babafemi and Riaan Combrinck

Ceramics 2025, 8(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020047 - 30 Apr 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4822

Abstract

Several studies have demonstrated that 3D-printed geopolymer concrete (3DPGPC) could be a sustainable solution to minimising waste, carbon emissions, and production costs, thereby providing quick completion of construction projects. However, for 3DPGPC to be widely adopted, it is essential to be aware of both the prospects as well as the limitations. In this regard, the scope of this perspective article includes a review of the limitations of 3DPGPC. Key limitations regarding the material, structural, technical, economic, and environmental aspects of 3DPGPC are highlighted. Additionally, this article includes the general limitations associated with geopolymer concrete. As such, geopolymer concrete suffers from several problems owing to varying alkaline activators and precursor types while exhibiting performance variability even within the same type of precursor. These limitations need to be addressed first in order to make progress in 3DPGPC. Following the limitations, this article then presents the research priorities in 3DPGPC, such as the need for a standardised code for its adoption in infrastructure projects. Hence, the information presented in this article is timely and crucial for all stakeholders in the low-carbon community. Furthermore, it serves as a call for future research to overcome the discussed limitations to realise the full potential of 3DPGPC technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Production Processes and Applications of Geopolymers, 2nd Edition)

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