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Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 November 2026 | Viewed by 14292

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Editors

Dr. Mauro Mandorino

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy
2. Performance and Analytics Department, Parma Calcio 1913, 43121 Parma, Italy
Interests: training load; performance analysis; recovery; analytics

Dr. Mathieu Lacome

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Guest Editor

1. Sport Expertise and Performance Laboratory, French National Institute of Sports (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
2. Performance and Analytics Department, Parma Calcio 1913, 43121 Parma, Italy
Interests: training load; performance analysis; recovery; analytics

Dr. Ronan Kavanagh

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Guest Editor Assistant

1. Football Performance Hub, Institute of Coaching and Performance, School of Health, Social Work and Sport, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
2. Performance and Analytics Department, Parma Calcio 1913, 43121 Parma, Italy
Interests: training load; performance analysis; recovery; analytics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, we have witnessed remarkable progress in sport physiology, driven by technological innovations and advanced analytical methods. Modern approaches now allow practitioners and researchers to move beyond traditional performance assessments toward a more integrated understanding of athlete health, adaptation, and performance optimization. Wearable technologies, GPS tracking, physiological monitoring, and machine learning techniques now provide unprecedented opportunities to collect, analyze, and interpret large volumes of data.

This Special Issue, ‘Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making’, aims to bring together cutting-edge research exploring how novel tools and methods can enhance athlete monitoring, improve training prescription, and support evidence-based decision-making in sport. We particularly welcome contributions that combine physiological insights with advanced data analysis, longitudinal monitoring, and interdisciplinary perspectives, ultimately bridging the gap between science and applied practice. By showcasing innovative approaches, this Special Issue seeks to shape the future of sport physiology, empowering coaches, scientists, and practitioners to make informed decisions that optimize performance and safeguard athlete well-being.

Dr. Mauro Mandorino
Dr. Mathieu Lacome
Guest Editors

Dr. Ronan Kavanagh
Guest Editor Assistant

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Keywords

sport physiology
athlete monitoring
performance analytics
training load
data-driven decision-making
wearable technology
longitudinal analysis
performance optimization
evidence-based practice

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 1514 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Alpha Band EEG Neurofeedback on Load-Specific Squat Performance in Competitive Judokas: The Role of Training Status

by Przemysław Pietraszewski, Adam Maszczyk, Dariusz Skalski, Szymon Kuliś, Tomasz Jabłoński, Łukasz Jaworski, Wirginia Likus, Kajetan Ornowski and Maciej Kostrzewa

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(15), 7509; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16157509 - 28 Jul 2026

Viewed by 339

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of alpha-band EEG neurofeedback on load-specific lower body strength performance in competitive judokas and examined whether training status modulates neuromuscular adaptation. Twenty-four male athletes (advanced vs. intermediate level) completed 15 neurofeedback sessions targeting the Frontal Alpha Asymmetry Index (FAAI) using real-time EEG from F3/F4 electrodes. Squat performance was assessed across five relative loads (35–100% 1RM) pre- and post-intervention. Key outcomes included ∆Reps at each intensity, EEG changes (∆FAAI, ∆F3, ∆F4), and a composite neural efficiency index (∆Reps/∆FAAI). Statistical analyses included RM-ANOVA, MANOVA, and ANCOVA with FAAI baseline as a covariate. Neither group showed significant within-group performance improvements across load conditions, and multivariate analysis revealed no significant group effect on EEG change outcomes (Wilks’ Λ = 0.930, p = 0.688). None of the individual EEG change metrics differed significantly between groups (∆FAAI, ∆F3, ∆F4; all p > 0.28). Efficiency indices likewise did not differ significantly by group (all p > 0.32), and FAAI baseline did not predict performance transfer. Despite uniform intervention exposure, cortical EEG changes did not differ significantly between experienced and Intermediate-level athletes, and squat performance remained load invariant in both groups. Because the design did not include a placebo or non-neurofeedback control condition, and given the small sample (n = 12 per group) and the non-significant multivariate effect, these findings should be regarded as preliminary and associative rather than causal. They suggest that alpha-band neurofeedback was not associated with training-status-dependent EEG changes over this protocol, and that cortical changes did not translate into measurable gains in maximal strength output under progressive loading. Further studies using placebo-controlled designs and larger samples should extend training duration and consider multimodal interventions to bridge cortical gains with functional strength improvements in elite sport contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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13 pages, 983 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Monitoring Neuromuscular Fatigue in Australian Football Players Using the Countermovement Jump

by Joe Kennedy, Brad Keller, Mitchell Corver, Peter K. Edwards and Dale W. Chapman

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(14), 6883; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16146883 - 9 Jul 2026

Viewed by 524

Abstract

Muscular fatigue, encompassing both short-term and long-term fatigue, presents a critical challenge in sports like Australian Football (AF) due to its impact on athlete performance and preparation readiness. Within the elite training environment, the intricacies of prolonged neuromuscular fatigue underscore the necessity for practical monitoring methods, like the countermovement jump (CMJ), to comprehend athlete readiness, performance, and the dynamic aspects of player load and positional changes. This research investigates how CMJ performance changes in professional AF athletes during the pre-season and in-season phases, taking into consideration the possible impact of training load and athlete positions. Forty-two elite AF athletes from a professional AF club underwent standardized CMJ testing throughout the pre-season and the first eight matches of the 2023 competitive season. Significant time effects were observed, with a 4% increase in mean jump height among Midfielders from the early to late pre-season, accompanied by a 7% reduction in countermovement depth. Changes in CMJ height performance following the first eight matches were negligible and non-significant; however, variables describing how athletes maintained this performance did substantially change. The study outcomes highlight the need to interpret changes in how any given performance was achieved more closely than an outcome variable alone. Doing so offers insights for targeted training interventions and informed coaching decisions that could assist with optimizing performance throughout the competitive season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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13 pages, 256 KB

Open AccessArticle

Match Exposure Significantly Influences Acceleration–Speed Profile Outcomes in Elite Football

by Colm Kavanagh, Kevin McDaid, Ross Cloak, Andrew M. Lane, Piotr Zmijewski and Ryland Morgans

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(13), 6721; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16136721 - 5 Jul 2026

Viewed by 619

Abstract

Despite the growing use of acceleration–speed (AS) profiling in elite football, the number and composition of sessions required to generate stable in situ profiles remain unclear. AS profiling provides estimates of maximal theoretical acceleration (A0) and maximal theoretical velocity (S0), which may offer practically relevant information for monitoring player sprint-related qualities. This study examined the influence of profiling-window length and match exposure on in situ AS profile outcomes in 19 professional football players competing in the 2023–2024 English Football League Championship. Profiles were generated using two non-overlapping conditions comprising five consecutive sessions (5SS) and ten consecutive sessions (10SS). Mean A0 values were 6.91 ± 0.36 m/s² for 5SS and 7.12 ± 0.40 m/s² for 10SS, while mean S0 values were 9.52 ± 0.29 m/s and 9.89 ± 0.28 m/s, respectively. Reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs), standard error of measurement (SEM), and smallest worthwhile change (SWC). The match count within each profiling window was associated with A0 and S0 outcomes in both 5SS and 10SS conditions (all p ≤ 0.004). However, ICC values were low, particularly for S0, and SEM exceeded SWC across conditions, indicating limited sensitivity for detecting small meaningful changes. These findings suggest that longer profiling windows may provide slightly more stable A0 estimates, whereas S0 appears more sensitive to match exposure and contextual variability. The results highlight the importance of interpreting AS profiles at an individual level and accounting for match exposure when comparing profile outcomes across monitoring windows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

17 pages, 1395 KB

Open AccessArticle

Longitudinal Selected Predictors Influencing 50-Metre Breaststroke Performance in Pre-Adolescent Non-Elite Female Swimmers

by Mariusz Kuberski, Agnieszka Musial, Maciej Choroszucho and Jacek Wąsik

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 3241; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16073241 - 27 Mar 2026

Viewed by 621

Abstract

Background: Breaststroke performance in young swimmers is influenced by a complex interaction of anthropometric, physiological, and technical factors. However, existing studies predominantly focus on pre-selected or elite youth swimmers, limiting insight into performance development in non-elite populations without early selection bias. Purpose: This study aimed to identify key predictors of 50-m breaststroke performance and to examine longitudinal changes in selected characteristics in pre-adolescent, non-elite female swimmers. Methods: Fourteen female swimmers (baseline biological age: 10.52 ± 0.37 years) who entered swimming training without prior anthropometric or physiological selection were followed over three consecutive years. Measurements were collected at six time points and included anthropometric dimensions, body composition, aerobic and anaerobic capacity, respiratory volumes, and 50-m breaststroke performance. This investigation was a prospective longitudinal cohort study. Data were analysed using generalised estimating equations. Results: The correlation-filtered model explained 76% of the variance in 50-m breaststroke time. Chest depth (B = −0.16, p = 0.03), foot length (B = −0.17, p = 0.04), foot width (B = 0.30, p < 0.001), and shoulder width (B = −0.07, p = 0.04) emerged as significant anthropometric predictors. Maximal oxygen uptake also showed a significant association with performance (B = −0.33, p = 0.02). Conclusions: In pre-adolescent, non-elite female swimmers, selected anthropometric characteristics—particularly trunk dimensions and foot morphology—are associated with short-distance breaststroke performance. Aerobic capacity appears to play an indirect, supportive role. These findings highlight the importance of longitudinal monitoring without early selection and support a development-oriented approach to youth swimming training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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14 pages, 251 KB

Open AccessArticle

Training Decision-Making in Youth Football: A Comparative Study of Traditional, Ecological Dynamics Approach, and Hybrid eSport-Based Protocol

by Rosario Ceruso, Giovanni Esposito, Sara Aliberti, Tiziana D’Isanto and Francesca D’Elia

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 2407; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16052407 - 2 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1132

Abstract

Modern football requires athletes to make rapid and effective decisions in highly dynamic environments. Although ecological dynamic approaches based on small-sided games have shown advantages over traditional training for decision-making development, the potential contribution of football eSports within integrated training protocols remains insufficiently explored. This study aimed to examine the effects of three training approaches—traditional training, ecological dynamic training with small-sided games, and a hybrid eSport-based protocol—on decision-making and reaction time in youth football players. Sixty-nine youth footballers (47 males and 22 females, mean age = 15.1 ± 0.9 years) were assigned to three groups and completed a 24-week intervention with pre-, mid-, and post-intervention assessments. General, offensive, and defensive decision-making were evaluated using the TacticUP Video Test, while reaction time was assessed through frame-by-frame video analysis. Data were analysed using mixed-design ANOVA (Group × Time) with Bonferroni post-hoc comparisons. Significant Group × Time interactions were observed for all variables, suggesting non-uniform longitudinal performance trends across the three training approaches, including a distinct pattern of change in the hybrid eSport-based group. In contrast, minimal changes were found in the traditional group, while moderate improvements were observed in the ecological dynamic group. Overall, the findings indicate that innovative training approaches are more effective than traditional training in enhancing decision-making and response speed in young footballers, with the hybrid eSport-based protocol showing the most pronounced effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

20 pages, 1527 KB

Open AccessArticle

“How Many Minutes Does the Player Have in His Legs?” Answering One of Football’s Oldest Coaching Questions Through a Mathematical Model

by Mauro Mandorino, Ronan Kavanagh, Antonio Tessitore, Valerio Persichetti, Manuel Morabito and Mathieu Lacome

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 2139; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16042139 - 23 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2738

Abstract

Coaches in professional football need to estimate how many minutes a player can tolerate in a match before relevant fatigue occurs. This study aimed to develop a framework to translate monitoring information into individualised, minute-based fatigue thresholds. Over four seasons in an elite club, external load (total distance, high-speed running, mechanical work) and heart rate were collected in training. Machine-learning-derived fitness and fatigue indices were computed and combined with 7- and 28-day load variables in a Random Forest regression model predicting match minutes. The trained model was then used to simulate four fatigue conditions by fixing the match-day fatigue index (z-FA_match = 0, −1, −2, −3). In an independent test season, the model showed a mean absolute error of 22.5 min and R² = 0.17 for playing time prediction, with z-FA_match as the most influential predictor. Simulated fatigue thresholds occurred in an ordered way (0 = 57.1, −1 = 64.9, −2 = 84.8, −3 = 84.4) and differed across season period, playing position, overall seasonal minutes, and return-to-play status. Integrating external load with fitness and fatigue indices via machine learning can provide individualised estimates of when players are likely to reach fatigue states, supporting decisions on selection, substitutions, and return-to-play management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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12 pages, 822 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Quantification of Absolute and Relative Training and Match Data Across a Typical Microcycle Utilizing a Match Day Minus Approach—A Case Study Examining Female Professional Soccer Players

by Rafael Oliveira, Mário C. Espada, Fernando J. Santos, Renato Fernandes, João Paulo Brito, Matilde Nalha and Ryland Morgans

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(2), 926; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16020926 - 16 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 957

Abstract

This study aimed to quantify the absolute and relative data across a typical microcycle (MC) in female professional soccer players utilizing a match day minus (MD-) approach. Ten players (24.7 ± 2.6 years) from an elite female Portuguese team participated in this case study. Data was analyzed in absolute or relativized values (per minute) and included the following metrics: duration, total distance, high-speed running distance (HSR, >15 km/h), number of accelerations (ACC, >1–2 m.s⁻² [ACC1]; >2–3 m.s⁻² [ACC2]; >3–4 m.s⁻² [ACC3]; >4 m.s⁻² [ACC4]) and decelerations (DEC, <1–2 m.s⁻² [DEC1]; <2–3 m.s⁻² [DEC2]; <3–4 m.s⁻² [DEC3]; <4 m.s⁻² [DEC4]). Total distance showed a significant difference between MD-4 and MD-2 (p = 0.047, moderate effect), which presented the lowest value of all MC days, while MD presented the highest value of HSR compared to all training days (p < 0.001, large to very large effect) for both absolute and relativized data. Relative data showed higher values for MD-5 with significant differences during MD-2 for ACC1, ACC2, DEC1, and DEC2 (p < 0.01, large to very large effect), while absolute data showed higher values during MD-4 for ACC2, DEC1, and DEC2 (p < 0.01, large to very large effect). Absolute ACC3 was higher during MD-3, denoting significant differences from MD-2 (p = 0.002, large effect). This study highlighted that it is possible to train, in specific sessions, with identical loading patterns of match play, specifically for ACC and DEC metrics. However, HSR distance was found to be higher during MD, while training values were significantly lower. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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12 pages, 560 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between GPS-Derived Match-Play Running Demands and Years of Experience in Elite Hurling

by Conor P. Clancy, Damien Young, Shane Malone, John Keane, Giuseppe Coratella and Kieran D. Collins

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(1), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16010228 - 25 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1817

Abstract

The current study investigated the relationship between match-play running demands and years of elite hurling experience across the 2021–2023 seasons. Sixty-eight (mean ± SD; Age: 25.5 ± 3.6 years, Mass: 87.5 ± 5.0 kg, Height: 184.2 ± 4.9 cm, Years Elite Experience: 5.3 ± 3.5 years) male elite intercounty hurlers participated. Each participant wore a global positioning system (GPS) unit sampling at 10 Hz (STATSports, Apex, Northern Ireland), and if they played ≥70 min, they were included in the analyses. Distance metrics analysed in metres were total distance (TD), high-speed running (HSR) (≥19.8 km·h⁻¹), sprint distance (≥25.2 km·h⁻¹), and high metabolic load distance (HMLD) (≥25.5 W·kg⁻¹). Participants were split into observational groups based on their years of elite experience: Emerging: 1–3 years, Established: 4–6 years, Seasoned: 7+ years. Emerging players covered less HSR (p = 0.039, ES = 0.25, small) and sprint distance (p = 0.019, ES = 0.28, small) compared to Established players. Seasoned players covered fewer TD and HMLD compared to Emerging players (TD: p < 0.001, ES = 0.31, small; HMLD: p < 0.001, ES = 0.34, small) and Established players (TD: p < 0.001, ES = 0.51, small; HMLD: p < 0.001, ES = 0.32, small). The results identified differences in match-play running demands based on years of elite experience. These findings may guide experience-specific conditioning strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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29 pages, 2127 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Inter-Session Intervals in Neurofeedback Training: A Randomized Trial of Retention and Individual Response Patterns in Elite Judo Athletes

by Alicja Markiel, Dariusz Skalski, Jarosław Markowski, Jan Pilch, Adam Maszczyk and Adam Zajac

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(1), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16010142 - 23 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1010

Abstract

Background: Neurofeedback training (NFT) enhances athletic performance through alpha modulation, but optimal inter-session intervals and individual response variability remain poorly understood. Objective: This is the first randomized controlled trial to systematically compare neurofeedback periodization (2-day vs. 3-day inter-session intervals) on neurophysiological adaptations, strength performance, and retention in elite judo athletes. Methods: Thirty-one national-level judokas completed 15 alpha enhancement sessions in 2-day (n = 12), 3-day (n = 12), or control (n = 7) groups, receiving pseudo-neurofeedback with randomized, non-contingent feedback. Primary outcomes included Frontal Alpha Index changes (ΔFAI; frontal alpha power modulation ratio) and squat performance (35–100% 1RM), with secondary assessment of 48/72 h retention and response phenotypes. Results: Mean ΔFAI was modest (E15G-2d: 0.005 ± 0.205; E15G-3d: 0.052 ± 0.202), with early peak responses followed by stabilization. E15G-3d demonstrated superior retention (90.2 ± 3.4% at 72 h vs. 76.8 ± 4.1% at 48 h; p < 0.001) despite similar peaks. Both training groups showed significant strength improvements versus controls (E15G-2d: 2.37 ± 0.66 reps; E15G-3d: 2.00 ± 0.53 reps), yet neurophysiological-performance correlations were non-significant (p > 0.072), indicating strength adaptations via mechanisms independent of alpha modulation. Three response phenotypes emerged (high: 29.0%, moderate: 51.6%, low: 19.4%), representing the first empirical classification of neurofeedback responsiveness in athletes. Conclusions: Three-day intervals uniquely optimize retention through enhanced consolidation, establishing evidence-based periodization guidelines for elite athletes. The dissociation between neural and performance adaptations challenges traditional neurofeedback theory, while individual heterogeneity necessitates personalized protocols for optimal NFT periodization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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11 pages, 1435 KB

Open AccessArticle

Blood Lactate Dynamics Reveal Distance-Specific Anaerobic Demands in 400 m Sprint Training

by Rafal Omelko, Dariusz Mroczek, Mateusz Jopek, Andrzej Mastalerz and Krzysztof Mackala

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(24), 13051; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152413051 - 11 Dec 2025

Viewed by 2590

Abstract

This study aimed to determine how anaerobic energy systems are activated during 350 m and 500 m running tests to identify which distance may more effectively develop special endurance for the 400 m run. Eleven elite male 400 m sprinters (6 in the 350 m group and 5 in the 500 m group) participated in the study. Plasma lactate levels were measured at several time points: before starting, after warm-up, immediately before the test, and 1, 3, 12, 20, and 40 min post-exercise. Blood lactate concentration ([La⁻]) was determined using the enzymatic Sentinel test (Italy). A difference in blood lactate concentration between groups was observed, reaching statistical significance at the 3 min post-exercise time point, although no significant changes were observed at other time points. The 350 m trial was associated with higher peak lactate levels, suggesting a greater acute anaerobic demand, while the 500 m trial required a longer recovery period for lactate clearance and return to homeostasis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Approaches to Sport Physiology: From Monitoring to Decision-Making)

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