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Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Poultry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 September 2024) | Viewed by 22561

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Dr. Kenneth Bafundo

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Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
Interests: Eimeria infections in poultry; effects of Eimeria on host nutrition; control of coccidiosis; intestinal health of broiler chickens

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Infection with Eimerian parasites remains one of the most significant production issues faced by the global poultry industry. In addition to the direct costs associated with increased mortality, insufficient weigh gains and poorly utilized feed, coccidial infection serves as a predisposing factor for important bacterial infections, allowing them to further compromise the well-being of commercial flocks. It is not surprising that the global costs of coccidial infections approach USD 15 billion annually.

Although chemotherapy and, to a lesser extent, live vaccination are the primary means of managing coccidial infections, research into new drug entities has decreased in the last 25 years. While interest in a non-living vaccine remains very high, progress toward this objective has been difficult. Thus, new technologies that offer effective parasite control are wanting. For those that deal with the daily realities of Eimeria infections, reliance on established, older anticoccidials and live vaccines, both alone and in combination, has become accepted practice. When these facts are coupled with the identification and global recognition of three new Eimeria species, the significance of coccidial infections seems to be increasing as time goes on.

At the risk of being excessively broad, the objective of this Special Issue is to review the status of Eimeria infections in poultry. The topics of interest are, but are not limited to, the significance of new Eimeria species, advances in understanding host–Eimeria relationships and their effects on the chicken, and the current thinking on novel approaches for the control of these infections. It is intended to serve as a reference for current specialists and as a guide to future research.

Dr. Kenneth Bafundo
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Eimeria of poultry
avian coccidiosis
host-Eimeria relationships
novel methods of coccidiosis control
intestinal health in chickens
commercial broiler production

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review, Other

6 pages, 163 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Current Thinking on Eimeria spp. in Poultry and Potential for Advancements in Control

by Kenneth Bafundo

Animals 2025, 15(3), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15030424 - 3 Feb 2025

Viewed by 787

Abstract

The significance of Eimeria infections in chicken production cannot be understated [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review, Other

13 pages, 3799 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alterations in Ileal Microbiota and Fecal Metabolite Profiles of Chickens with Immunity to Eimeria mitis

by Zhongchuang Wang, Peiyao Shang, Xingju Song, Minghui Wu, Tong Zhang, Qiping Zhao, Shunhai Zhu, Yu Qiao, Fanghe Zhao, Ruiting Zhang, Jinwen Wang, Yu Yu, Hongyu Han and Hui Dong

Animals 2024, 14(23), 3515; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14233515 - 5 Dec 2024

Viewed by 887

Abstract

Coccidiosis, caused by different species of Eimeria parasites, is an economically important disease in poultry and livestock worldwide. This study aimed to investigate the changes in the ileal microbiota and fecal metabolites in chickens after repeated infections with low-dose E. mitis. The chickens developed solid immunity against a high dose of E. mitis infection after repeated infections with low-dose E. mitis. The composition of the ileal microbiota and the metabonomics of the Eimeria-immunized group and the control group were detected using 16S rRNA sequencing and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The relative abundance of Neisseria, Erysipelotrichaceae, Incertae sedis, Coprobacter, Capnocytophaga, Bifidobacterium, and the Ruminococcus torques group declined in the Eimeria-immunized chickens, whereas Alloprevotella, Staphylococcus, Haemophilus, and Streptococcus increased. Furthermore, 286 differential metabolites (including N-undecylbenzenesulfonic acid, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, gluconic acid, isoleucylproline, proline, and 1-kestose) and 19 significantly altered metabolic pathways (including galactose metabolism, ABC transporters, starch and sucrose metabolism, the ErbB signaling pathway, and the MAPK signaling pathway) were identified between the Eimeria-immunized group and the control group. These discoveries will help us learn more about the composition and dynamics of the gut microbiota as well as the metabolic changes in chickens infected with Eimeria spp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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20 pages, 8288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Changes in Jejunal and Ileal Microbiota of Broiler Chickens with Clinical Coccidiosis (Eimeria maxima)

by Katarzyna B. Miska, Philip M. Campos, Sara E. Cloft, Mark C. Jenkins and Monika Proszkowiec-Weglarz

Animals 2024, 14(20), 2976; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14202976 - 15 Oct 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1122

Abstract

Coccidiosis in broiler chickens continues to be a major disease of the gastrointestinal tract, causing economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide. The goal of this study was to generate a symptomatic Eimeria maxima (1000 oocysts) infection to determine its effect on the luminal and mucosal microbiota populations (L and M) in the jejunum and ileum (J and IL). Samples were taken from day 0 to 14 post-infection, and sequencing of 16S rRNA was performed using Illumina technology. Infected birds had significantly (p < 0.0001) lower body weight gain (BWG), higher feed conversion ratio (FCR) (p = 0.0015), increased crypt depth, and decreased villus height (p < 0.05). The significant differences in alpha and beta diversity were observed primarily at height of infection (D7). Analysis of taxonomy indicated that J-L and M were dominated by Lactobacillus, and in IL-M, changeover from Candidatus Arthromitus to Lactobacillus as the major taxon was observed, which occurred quicky in infected animals. LEfSe analysis found that in the J-M of infected chickens, Lactobacillus was significantly more abundant in infected (IF) chickens. These findings show that E. maxima infection affects the microbiota of the small intestine in a time-dependent manner, with different effects on the luminal and mucosal populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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12 pages, 784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Dietary Inclusion of a Proprietary Combination of Quillaja saponaria and Yucca schidigera on Intestinal Permeability and Immune Response in Broiler Chickens during a Coccidia Challenge

by Kari Saddoris-Clemons, Saheed Osho, Miriam Garcia and Brooke Humphrey

Animals 2024, 14(12), 1737; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14121737 - 8 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1404

Abstract

This study assessed the impact of Magni-Phi Ultra (MPU) inclusion on intestinal integrity and immunity in broiler chickens challenged with coccidia during peak and recovery phases. A total of 128 male Ross 708 broiler chicks were randomly allotted to one of four treatment groups (four chicks/cage). Treatments included an uninfected control (UUC); a coccidial challenge (CC) infected control (IUC); a CC fed salinomycin at 66 ppm (SAL); and a CC fed Magni-Phi Ultra at 0.11 g/kg of diet (MPU). At 16 days post-hatch, all birds in the CC groups were orally gavaged with a 3× dose of a live coccidia vaccine. At 5 dpi, the birds fed MPU and SAL showed decreased plasma FITC-d, oocyte shedding, and lesion scores and higher BWG compared to the IUC birds (p < 0.05). Jejunum IL-17, IL-10, and IFN-_ϒ mRNA expression was higher in the IUC compared to the UUC (p < 0.05) group at 5 dpi. At 12 dpi, the birds fed MPU or SAL had lower plasma FITC-d and jejunum IFN-_ϒ and IL-10 mRNA expression compared to the IUC birds (p < 0.05). This study indicates that MPU supports intestinal integrity and mucosal immune responses during the peak and recovery phases of infection, which may lead to improved health and performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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11 pages, 226 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effects of Starter Diet Energy Concentration on Nutrient Digestibility and Subsequent Growth Performance and Meat Yields of Broilers under Two Coccidiosis Control Programs

by Alyson G. Myers and Samuel J. Rochell

Animals 2024, 14(11), 1524; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14111524 - 22 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1453

Abstract

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the live performance, processing characteristics, and apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients and energy (IDE) in broilers under two coccidiosis control programs (CCP) and fed three starter diet energy levels. Treatments were a factorial arrangement of CCP [in-feed diclazuril (ACD) or vaccinated after hatch (VAC)] and three starter diet energy levels [3008 (standard), 3058 (moderate), and 3108 (high) kcal/kg apparent ME_n] achieved with different soybean oil concentrations. Birds were reared in floor pens (12 per pen) and received experimental starter diets from 0 to 18 d and common grower and finisher diets to 43 d. At d 11, VAC birds had higher (p < 0.05) excreta oocyst counts and lower (p < 0.05) plasma carotenoids, nutrient AID, and IDE than ACD birds. From 0 to 18 and 0 to 31 d, VAC decreased (p < 0.05) body weight gain and increased (energy × CCP, p < 0.05) feed conversion ratio of birds fed the moderate and high-energy diets but not for those fed the standard energy diet. From 0 to 43 d, VAC only increased the feed conversion ratio of birds fed the moderate-energy starter diet (energy × CCP, p < 0.05). Carcass yields were lower (p < 0.05) for VAC birds than for ACD birds, and interactive effects (p < 0.05) were observed for wing yield. In summary, increasing dietary lipid concentration to account for Eimeria-induced reductions in lipid digestibility during the starter period of coccidiosis-vaccinated broilers may exacerbate, rather than ameliorate, these impacts on bird performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

13 pages, 4044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automated Image Analysis for Detection of Coccidia in Poultry

by Isaac Kellogg, David L. Roberts and Rocio Crespo

Animals 2024, 14(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020212 - 9 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2863

Abstract

Coccidiosis, caused by the protozoan Eimeria sp., is one of the most common and costly diseases impacting the poultry industry. To establish effective control measures, it is essential to identify these protozoa. Typical methods for identifying and determining the severity of the protozoal infection include intestinal lesion scoring or enumeration of the protozoal oocysts in fecal samples. Standard analysis methods require highly skilled technicians or veterinarians to manually identify and manually enumerate these protozoal parasites. This process is labor intensive, time-consuming, and susceptible to human error. None of the current methods available, including molecular flow cytometry or even digital image analysis, can determine if an oocyst is sporulated or not. Oocysts are not infectious until they sporulate. The goal of this study was to design an automated model using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to expedite the process of enumeration, improve the efficiency and accuracy of the species identification, and determine the ability of the oocysts to infect. To this end, we trained and evaluated computer vision models based on the Mask RCNN neural network architecture. A model was trained to detect and differentiate three species and to determine sporulation for each (totaling six detection groups). This model achieved a mean relative percentage difference (RPD) of 5.64%, representing a slight overcount compared to manual counts, averaging across all groups. The mean RPD for each group individually fell within a range from −33.37% to 52.72%. These results demonstrate that these models were speedy and had high agreement with manual counts, with minimal processing of field-quality samples. These models also could differentiate the sporulation status of the oocysts, providing critical diagnostic information for potential field applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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14 pages, 5823 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thyme, Oregano, and Garlic Essential Oils and Their Main Active Compounds Influence Eimeria tenella Intracellular Development

by Martina Felici, Benedetta Tugnoli, Callum De Hoest-Thompson, Andrea Piva, Ester Grilli and Virginia Marugan-Hernandez

Animals 2024, 14(1), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14010077 - 25 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1913

Abstract

Coccidiosis poses a significant challenge in poultry production and is typically managed with ionophores and chemical anticoccidials. However, the emergence of drug resistance and limitations on their use have encouraged the exploration of alternative solutions, including botanical compounds and improvements in in vitro screening methods. Prior research focused only on the impact of these alternatives on Eimeria invasion, with intracellular development in cell cultures receiving limited attention. This study assessed the impact of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), oregano (Origanum vulgare), and garlic (Allium sativum) essential oils, as well as their bioactive compounds, on the initial phase of schizogony in Madin–Darby bovine kidney cells, comparing their effectiveness to two commercially used anticoccidial drugs. Using image analysis and quantitative PCR, the study confirmed the efficacy of commercial anticoccidials in reducing invasion and schizont formation, and it found that essential oils were equally effective. Notably, thymol and carvacrol exhibited mild inhibition of intracellular replication of the parasite but significantly reduced schizont numbers, implying a potential reduction in pathogenicity. In conclusion, this research highlights the promise of essential oils and their bioactive components as viable alternatives to traditional anticoccidial drugs for mitigating coccidiosis in poultry, particularly by disrupting the intracellular development of the parasites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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19 pages, 2717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of an Alliaceae Encapsulated Extract on Growth Performance, Gut Health, and Intestinal Microbiota in Broiler Chickens Challenged with Eimeria spp.

by Gonzalo Villar-Patiño, María del Carmen Camacho-Rea, Myrna Elena Olvera-García, Julio César Baltazar-Vázquez, Gabriela Gómez-Verduzco, Guillermo Téllez, Aurora Labastida and Aurora Hilda Ramírez-Pérez

Animals 2023, 13(24), 3884; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13243884 - 18 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1712

Abstract

This study analyzed the effects of an Alliaceae encapsulated extract (AE-e) on daily gain (ADG), feed intake (ADFI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), oocysts per gram of feces (OPG), intestinal lesion (LS), and microbiota composition in broilers challenged with Eimeria spp. A total of 4800 one day Cobb-500 were allotted into 10 treatment groups with 12 replicates of 40 birds in a 2 × 4 + 2 factorial arrangement. The first factor was non-challenged (NC) or challenged (C), the second was four levels of AE-e added in the basal diet, 0 (AE0), 250 (AE250), 500 (AE500), and 750 mg·kg⁻¹ (AE750), plus two ionophore controls, non-challenged (NC-Ion) and challenged (C-Ion). No interactions were observed between factors (NC0, NC250, NC500, NC750, C0, C250, C500, and C750), while C-Ion improved FCR at 21 d. The challenge affected negatively ADG and FCR and promoted enteropathogens in cecum. AE750 improved FCR in the finisher and cumulative phases, while C-Ion had fewer total OPG than C0 and C250. Likewise, at 21d, C250, C500, and C-Ion had fewer LS than C0, while at 28 d, C750 showed lower than C-Ion. In the cecum microbiota, C500 had more Ruminococcus, Firmicutes b, and Intestinimonas than C-Ion. In summary, AE-e showed beneficial results in broilers infected with Eimeria spp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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12 pages, 2308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Immunoprotective Effect of ROP27 Protein of Eimeria tenella

by Menggang Li, Xiaoling Lv, Mingxue Zheng and Yingyi Wei

Animals 2023, 13(22), 3500; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13223500 - 13 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1484

Abstract

Eimeria tenella rhoptry protein has the properties of a protective antigen. EtROP27 is a pathogenic gene that is detected via a transcriptome, but its expression pattern, immunogenicity, and potency are unknown. Therefore, a gene segment of EtROP27 was amplified and transplanted into the pET28a prokaryotic vector for the expression of the recombinant protein, and it subsequently purified for the generation of a polyclonal antibody. Then, RT-PCR and Western blotting were performed to understand the expression pattern of EtROP27. Subsequently, animal experiments were conducted to evaluate the immunoprotective effect of the recombinant protein with different immunizing doses (50, 100, and 150 μg). The results showed that the expression of EtROP27 gradually increased with the prolongation of infection time, reaching the highest level at 96 h and then decreasing. Additionally, EtROP27 is a natural antigen of coccidia that can stimulate the body to produce high levels of IgY. As with recombinant protein vaccines, the results of immune protection evaluation tests showed that the average weight gain rates of the immune challenge groups were significantly higher than that of the challenged control group, and their average lesion scores were significantly lower than that of the challenged control group. Furthermore, the oocyst excretion decreased by 81.25%, 86.21%, and 80.01%, and the anticoccidial index was 159.45, 171.47, and 166.75, respectively, for these groups. EtROP27 is a promising antigen gene candidate for the development of a coccidiosis vaccine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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Review

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33 pages, 1405 KiB

Open AccessReview

Coccidiosis in Egg-Laying Hens and Potential Nutritional Strategies to Modulate Performance, Gut Health, and Immune Response

by Milan Kumar Sharma and Woo Kyun Kim

Animals 2024, 14(7), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14071015 - 27 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4635

Abstract

Avian coccidiosis, despite advancements in management, nutrition, genetics, and immunology, still remains the most impactful disease, imposing substantial economic losses to the poultry industry. Coccidiosis may strike any avian species, and it may be mild to severe, depending on the pathogenicity of Eimeria spp. and the number of oocysts ingested by the bird. Unlike broilers, low emphasis has been given to laying hens. Coccidiosis in laying hens damages the gastrointestinal tract and causes physiological changes, including oxidative stress, immunosuppression, and inflammatory changes, leading to reduced feed intake and a drastic drop in egg production. Several countries around the world have large numbers of hens raised in cage-free/free-range facilities, and coccidiosis has already become one of the many problems that producers have to face in the future. However, limited research has been conducted on egg-laying hens, and our understanding of the physiological changes following coccidiosis in hens relies heavily on studies conducted on broilers. The aim of this review is to summarize the effect of coccidiosis in laying hens to an extent and correlate it with the physiological changes that occur in broilers following coccidiosis. Additionally, this review tries to explore the nutritional strategies successfully used in broilers to mitigate the negative effects of coccidiosis in improving the gut health and performance of broilers and if they can be used in laying hens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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Other

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9 pages, 970 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Occurrence of Eimeria spp. and Intestinal Helminths in Free-Range Chickens from Northwest and Central Romania

by Mircea Coroian, Tünde-Zsuzsánna Fábián-Ravasz, Patricia Roxana Dobrin and Adriana Györke

Animals 2024, 14(4), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14040563 - 7 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2343

Abstract

Chickens raised in backyard free-range systems are confronted with a significant threat of parasitic infections. Among the parasitic agents, protozoa belonging to the genus Eimeria and helminths, including Ascaridia galli, Capillaria spp., Heterakis gallinarum, and Strongyloides avium, stand out as the most prevalent. The sampling protocol included sixteen localities in four counties within the Transylvania region of Romania. Fecal samples were collected from chickens reared in a backyard system. Fecal samples were screened for oocysts (O) and eggs (E) by flotation method, and their number per gram of feces (OPG/EPG) was calculated after counting them by McMaster method. Positive samples for Eimeria spp. were further analyzed by PCR (polymerase chain reaction) method to identify the Eimeria species. A total of 145 flocks were tested and the overall prevalence of infection was 53.1%. The most prevalent infections were with A. galli/H. gallinarum (25.5%), and Eimeria spp. (24.8%), followed by Capillaria spp. and strongyles. The mean OPG/EPG values were as follows: 63,577 for Eimeria spp., 157 for Ascaridia/Heterakis, 362 for Capillaria spp., and 1671 for Strongyle eggs. Identified Eimeria species were E. acervulina (41.7%), E. tenella (27.8%), E. praecox (16.7%), E. brunetti (16.7%), OTUy (operational taxonomic unit y) (8.3%), OTUz (operational taxonomic unit z) (8.3%) and E. mitis (5.6%). Intestinal parasites exhibit a high prevalence among chickens in backyard poultry flocks, and the presence of significant parasite burdens can adversely affect both productive and economic aspects. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study that aimed to analyze the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in chickens raised in a backyard free-range system in Romania, and the first report of OTUy species in Europe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidiosis in Poultry: Current Thinking on Eimeria spp., Host–Parasite Relationships, and Potential for Advancements in Control)

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